MGT8033: Twba.

Session 4 - Diagnosis

Data collection, Information

gathering, Processing and
Feedback
Learning Objectives

 Explain the importance of

diagnosis in the overall
organisational change process
 Understand the basic principles of
data collection and analysis
 To (identify and) understand
methods for collecting and
analysing diagnostic information
 To learn how to feed back
diagnostic information
Collecting and Analysing Diagnostic Information
Major methods for collecting data

1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Observations
4. Unobtrusive methods
1. Questionnaires

 Considered one of the most efficient ways

to collect data
 Contain fixed-response questions
 Administered to large numbers of people
simultaneously
 Can be analysed quickly
 Permit quantitative analysis
 Data can easily be fed back to employees
1. Questionnaires
 Advantages
Draw from large
samples/groups of
respondents
Attract and accommodate large
quantities of data
Relatively inexpensive
The activity isn’t time-bound
 Disadvantages
Preset questions may not target
the real issues
Data can be misinterpreted or
overinterpreted
Respondets can misinterpret
questions
Subject to response bias
(including deliberate
misinformation)
 2. Interviews

Most frequently used methodology in OD

Especially useful where there is trust between
managers and employees
Can be oriented to the individual or the group
Interviews may be highly structured
 resembling questionnaires
may be unstructured
 starting with general questions that allow the
respondent to lead the way
 2. Interviews

Advantages
 Flexibility – allows discretion re pursuing themes and further
clarification
 Primary and rich data
 Can build rapport with subjects, in which case more honest
and frank disclosure is possible
 May be individual or group-oriented
 Focus groups popular: can uncover info. on specific matters
and in great depth. In this form, the process can be quite
economical
2. Interviews

Disadvantages
 Substantial time to plan, conduct and
analyse, with potential complications in
interpretation of outcomes
 Comparative silence - ‘sleepers’ in group
interviews (focus groups) means some
views may not be aired. The prevailing
views then may not reflect accurately the
group view
 Bias on the part of interviewer or
respondent(s)
 3. Observations

 A direct way of collecting data

 Feature organisational behaviours in their usual functional
settings
 Observer can be group member or completely detached from
the group or situation
 If carried out ‘properly’ need not impinge on or influence
normal operations
 This data collection method requires care/skill
3. Observations

Advantages
 Yields data on actual
behaviour
 Free of bias associated
with self-reporting
 Focus on the present
whereas other methods
tend to be retrospective
 Observer can readily
change point of focus
Disadvantages
 Meaning behind observed
behaviours can be
difficult to determine
 Observer bias possible
 Sampling issues (see
Waddell et al 2011, p.
148)
 Can be expensive
4. Unobtrusive measures

 Data collected from secondary sources

 Records are typically readily accessible
 absenteeism, tardiness, grievances, quantity and
quality of production or service, financial performance,
correspondence with key stakeholders

 Helpful in diagnosing group and individual

outputs
 These data are recorded at various intervals
anyway, therefore trends can be identified
 4. Unobtrusive measures

Advantages Disadvantages
 Non-reactive, no  Access and retrieval
response bias difficulties (data in a form
that’s useful to the company
 High face validity: can
but not the consultant
be used to cross-
 recording procedures are
check
subject to change, which
 Easily quantified and can make validity of data
reflect ‘legitimacy’ questionable
 Coding and interpretation
difficulties
Sampling-type concerns

 Questions re how to go about data collection arise, e.g.

How many interviews? Who to interview? Which data are
pertinent? Which events should be noted? How often?
 Can be circumvented when all org. members are
caught in the sample … but this is rare.
 In most data collection for diagnosis, selections are
made. Sampling is more expedient and less a
resourcing drain on the enterprise.
 Selections/samples typically need to reflect the
characteristics of the population.
Sampling-type concerns

Importance of sample size (how many events,

records, people are required?)
 No definitive answer
 Sample size decisions are informed by the size of
the population, (The larger or more complex the
pop., the more rigorous the data should be), the
required confidence in the accuracy and relevance
of the data (in which case the larger the proportion of
sample to pop. the better), and resources made
available for data collection (because resource
limitations restrict sample size.
Sampling-type concerns

Importance of sample selection

 Simple random sampling is often used (every
person, behaviour event or record has equal
chance of being included)
 For complex populations or many different
types or groups must be represented in your
sample, a stratified sample may be used.
Here, for example, the different member
types are allocated into mutually exclusive
sets, and a random sample is then taken
from each.
Some Techniques for analysing data

Qualitative tools
 Content analysis
 Force-field analysis
Quantitative tools
 Means, standard deviations and frequency
distributions
 Scattergrams and correlation coefficients
 Difference tests
Feeding Back Diagnostic Information
Characteristics of effective feedback

 Relevant (meaningful to org. members)

 Understandable (readily interpreted)
 Descriptive (reflect org. behaviours)
 Verifiable (valid & accurate)
 Timely (fed back as soon as practicable)
 Comparative (benchmarking assists here)
 Unfinalised (feedback is a spur for further action &
investigation)
 Significant (limited to issues the members can reasonably
do something about)
Characteristics of the feedback process

 Motivation to work with the data

 May involve some empowering. Members will use the data
insofar as they feel some sense of ownership
 Structure for the meeting
 An agenda or direction required. Complicated when the
data reflect negatively
 Appropriate membership
 Suggests that those who are likely to be affected by the
impending change, must be included in the feedback
meeting
Characteristics of the feedback process

 Appropriate power
 Members need to be clear on which decisions are
already made, where they have some discretion or
input, and to what extent?
 Little real power to influence changes means little
ownership of the data (or the problem)
 Process help
 Equates to active assistance from the consultant to
work through the issues collectively
Survey feedback steps

 Involve organisation in preliminary

planning
 Administer survey instrument
 Analyse the survey data, tabulate results
and give suggestions for diagnosis
 Feedback usually begins at the top of the
organisation and trickles down.
Limitations of survey feedback

Ambiguity of purpose
 Difficulty reaching consensus
Distrust
 High levels of distrust in the organisation can
render the survey feedback ineffective
Unacceptable topics
Organisational disturbance
Summary

Data Gathering
 questionnaires, interviews, observation, unobtrusive measures

Sampling concerns
Data Analysis
 Qualitative methods
 Quantitative methods
Characteristics of effective feedback
Characteristics of the feedback process
Survey feedback (steps & limitations)