ACOUSTICS

“For I know the plans I have

for, plan to prosper you and
not to harm you, plan to give
you hope and a future.”
Jer. 29:11
• Acoustics
– The science of sound, including its
production, propagation and effects
– The objective study of the physical behavior
of sound in an enclosed space
• Sound
– A wave motion consisting of a series of
condensations and rarefactions in an elastic
medium produced by a vibrating body
• Infrasonic/Subsonic
– frequencies below the audible range

• Ultrasonic/Supersonic
– frequencies above the audible range

Audible Range: 20 – 20 000Hz

General Interpretation of Sound
1. Physical phenomenon consisting of wave
motion in a transmitting medium
(objective)

2. Sensation due to outside simulation

(subjective)
 Requirements to Produce Sounds

1. Presence of vibrating body

2. Presence of transmitting medium
3. Presence of receiving medium
 Physical Properties of Sound
1. Amplitude
2. Period
3. Frequency
4. Wavelength
5. Velocity of Propagation
 Velocity of Sounds
A. Solids

Where:
E = Young’s Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sounds
B. Liquids

Where:
E = Bulk’s Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sounds
C. Gases

Where:
k = specific heat ratio = hsp/hsv
hsp = specific heat at constant pressure
hsv = specific heat at constant volume
p = gas pressure, dynes/cm2
d = density, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sounds
D. Dry Air/Air (for TC ≤ 20 0C)
 Velocity of Sounds
D. Dry Air/Air (for TC ≥ 20 0C)

where:
TK = temperature in Kelvin
 Velocity of Sounds
• Notes
Sounds travel more slowly in gases than in
liquids, and more slowly in liquids than solids.
Sounds travels slower with an increased
altitude (elevation if you are on solid earth),
primarily as a result and humidity changes.
 Possibilities when a Propagated
Sound is Obstructed (3)
• Sound is Reflected

• Becomes apparent to the listener only when the distance

from the source and the reflecting medium is great and the
difference between the original and reflected sound is greater
or equal to 1/17 of a second.

• Brought about by a series of rarefactions between two

parallel surfaces resulting to prolongation of sound
• Creates listener fatigue

• Reflection caused by two parallel surfaces, producing

standing waves
 Possibilities when a Propagated
Sound is Obstructed
• Sound is absorbed
– Conversion of sound energy to heat energy
• Onward transmission through
obstruction
 Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
• Pitch
– Number of cycles a wave goes through in a
definite interval
– The higher the frequency the higher the pitch
• Mel – unit of pitch
• 1000 mels – pitch of 1000Hz tone at 40dB
• Octave – pitch interval 2:1; frequency is twice the
given tone
 Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
• Tone
– Timbre quality of sound
• Pure Tone – a sound composed of only one
frequency in which the sound pressure varies
sinusoidally with time.
• Musical Sounds – composed of the fundamental
frequency and its harmonics
 Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
• Loudness
– Fluctuation of air pressure created by sound waves
– Observer’s auditory impression of the strength of a
sound and is associated with the rate at which energy
is transmitted to the ear.
– Depends on the amplitude of the sound

Loudness Level – measured by the sound level of a

standard pure tone or specified frequency which is
assessed by normal observers as being equally loud
 PHON
Phon is the unit of loudness level when:
• The standard pure tone is produced by a
sensibly plane sinusoidal progressive
sound wave coming from directly in front
of the observer and having the frequency
of 1kHz
• The sound pressure level in the free
progressive wave is expressed in dB
above 2 x 10-5 N/m2
 Sound Levels
Part A. Sound Pressure (P) and Sound
Pressure Level (SPL)

Sound Pressure
• The alternating component of the pressure at a
particular point in a sound field
• Expressed in N/m2 or Pa
 Sound Levels
• Sound Pressure Level
– Equal to 20 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the
ratio of the RMS sound pressure to the reference
sound pressure

SPL = 20 log (P/Po)

Where:
P = rms sound pressure
Po = reference sound pressure
Po = 2 x 10-5 N/m2 or Pa
Po = 0.0002 μbar
Po = 2.089 lb/ft2
 Sound Pressure Levels
• Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at any unit of
pressure in dB

SPL = 20log(P+N)

Where:
PN = rms sound pressure expressed in any of
pressure in dB
N = SPL constant corresponding to the unit at
which sound pressure is expressed
 SPL Constants
SPL Constant
Unit of Sound Pressure Designation
(N)
Microbar μbar 74
Pascal N/m2 94
lb/ft2 psf 127.6
mmHg mmHg 136.5
torr torr 136.5
lb/in2 psi 170.8
atm (technical) atm 193.8
atm (standard) atm 194.1
 Sound Levels
• Part B. Sound Intensity (I) and Sound
Intensity Level (SIL)
– Sound Intensity
• Defined as the power per unit area
• The basic units are W/m2 or W/cm2
• The average rate of transmission of sound energy
through a cross-sectional area of 1 m2 at right
angles to a particular motion
 Sound Levels
• Inverse Square Law
– The sound intensity from a point source of
sound will obey the inverse square law if there
are no reflections or reverberation.
 Sound Levels
For sound produced at ground level
 Sound Levels
• Sound Intensity Level

Where:
I = sound intensity
Io = threshold intensity, W/m2
Io = 10-12 W/m2 = 10-16 W/cm2
 Sound Levels
• Part C. Sound Power (W) and Sound
Power Level (PWL)

Sound Power (W)

– The total energy radiated per unit time.
 Sound Levels
• Sound Power Level (PWL)

Where:
W = sound power , W
Wo = reference sound power
Wo = 10-12 W/m2 = 10-16 W/cm2
ROOM ACOUSTICS
 Room Acoustics
• Room Acoustics
Concerned with the behavior of sound within
an enclosed space with a view to obtaining
the optimum acoustic effect on the occupants
 Room Acoustics
• Requirements
Adequate amount of sound
Even distribution of sound
Noise might tend to mask the required sound
Reverberation time, RT60
 Room Acoustics
• Coefficient of absorption, α
– Ratio of incident sound and absorbed sound
– Efficiency of sound absorption
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption
 Reverberation
• Reverberation
– Tendency for the sound to persist over a
definite period of time after it has been
produced originally and stopped at the source
• Reverberation Time, RT60
– Time taken for the density of sound energy in
the room to drop to 1 millionth (60dB) below
of its initial value
Optimum Periods of Reverberation
 Factors Affecting Reverberation
Time
• Volume of the room
• Type of materials
• Surface area of material
 Reverberation Time Equations
a. Sabine’s Equation
– For actual reverberation time with average absorption
less than or equal to 0.2; (absorption coefficient, α ≤
0.2)

Where;
V = room volume, m3
A = total absorption
units
Reverberation Time Equations

Where;
V = room volume, ft3
A = total absorption units
 Reverberation Time Equations
b. Norris – Eyring Equation
– For actual reverberation time with average
absorption greater than 0.2; ( α ≥ 0.2 )

Where;
V = room volume, m3
α = average
coefficient of
reflecting surfaces
 Reverberation Time Equations
c. Stephens and Bate Equation
– For ideal reverberation time computation

Where:
r = 4 for speech
r = 5 for orchestra
r = 6 for choir
MICROPHONES
• Microphone
– An acoustic device classified as a transducer
which converts sound waves into their
corresponding electrical impulses
• Transducer
– A device which when actuated by energy in
one transmission system, supplies energy in
the same form or in another form, to a second
transmission system
 Classification of Microphones
A. General Categories

1. Passive (Generator Type) Microphone

• Does not require external power source

2. Active (Amplifier Type) Microphone

• Needs an external power source for its operation
 Classification of Microphones
B. According to Impedance

1. High Impedance
• Greater than 1000 ohms

2. Low Impedance
• 1000 ohms and below
 Classification of Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling

1. Pressure Type
2. Velocity Type
3. Contact Type
 Classification of Microphones
D. According to Elements Used
1. Dynamic
– Uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction
– Electromagnetic moving coil microphone
– A medium-priced instrument of high
sensitivity
 Classification of Microphones
2. Ribbon
– Velocity microphone
– Ribbon moves as if it is a part of the air that
experiences rarefactions and condensations
3. Capacitor
– Condenser type or electrostatic microphone
 Classification of Microphones
4. Carbon
– Uses principle of variable resistance
5. Crystal
– Uses principle of piezoelectric effect
6. Magnetic
– Operated on the magnetic reluctance due to
the movable core
 Classification of Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics

1. Unidirectional
2. Bidirectional
3. Omnidirectional
4. Cardioid
 Characteristics of Microphone
1. Frequency Response
– Frequency over which the microphone will
operate normally

Magnetic : 60 – 10 000Hz
Crystal : 50 – 10 000Hz
Condenser : 50 – 15 000Hz
Carbon : 200 – 3 000Hz
 Characteristics of Microphone
2. Sensitivity
– Ability that would be covered by the
microphone
3. Dynamic Range
– Range of sound intensity that would be
covered by the microphone
 Special Types of Microphones
• Line Microphone
– Capable of picking up sound from a great
distance at an angle of 45 degrees and is
highly sensitive

• Differential Microphone
– Used in noisy places; good up to 3-in distance
LOUDSPEAKERS
 Types of Loudspeakers
Direct Radiator Type
• Those in which the vibrating surface (diaphragm)
radiates sound directly into the air

1. Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker

– Makes use of a moving coil in a magnetic field
and a permanent magnet
2. Electrostatic Loudspeaker
– Operates on the same principle as a
condenser microphone
 Types of Loudspeakers
Horn Type
– Those in which a horn is interposed between the
diaphragm and the air
– Used for efficient coupling of sound into the air

Types:
• Conical Horn
• Parabolic Horn
• Exponential Horn
• Hyperbolic Horn
 Types of Loudspeakers
• To cover the entire range of audible
frequencies, the following speakers are
used:

a. Woofer – for low frequencies

b. Tweeter – for high frequencies
c. Midrange – for normal range
 Loudspeaker Phasing
• When more than one speaker is used:
– Phasing must be uniform
– Polarities and voice coils are in phase such
that the cone of all the speakers move
inwards at the same instant.
Loudspeaker Enclosure (Baffle)
• Loudspeaker mounting that is used to
prevent the sound waves from the rear
from interfering with the sound waves in
the front of speaker
Set Problems for Acoustics

Try these…!!!
1. Which best describe the sound wave?
a. It may be longitudinal
b. It is always transverse
c. It is always longitudinal
d. All of the above

2. Which of the following can not travel through a

vacuum?
a. Electromagnetic wave
b. Radio wave
c. Soundwave
d. Light wave
3. Through which medium does sound travel
fastest?
a. Air
b. Water
c. Steel
d. Mercury

4. Speed that is faster than that of sound.

a. Ultrasonic
b. Supersonic
c. Subsonic
d. Transonic
5. What is the speed of sound in air at 20°C?
a. 1087 ft/s
b. 1100 ft/s
c. 1126 ft/s
d. 200 ft/s

6. Calculate a half wavelength sound for sound of

16000 Hz
a. 35 ft
b. 10 ft
c. 0.035 ft
d. 100 ft
7. The lowest frequency that a human ear can hear
is
a. 5 Hz
b. 20 Hz
c. 30 Hz
d. 20 kHz

8. Sound that vibrates at frequency too high for the

human ear to hear (over 20 kHz)
a. Subsonic
b. Ultrasonic
c. Transonic
d. Stereo
9. The frequency interval between two sounds
whose frequency ratio is 10
a. Octave
b. Half octave
c. Third-octave
d. Decade

10. A 16 KHz sound is how many octaves higher

than a 500 Hz sound
a. 2
b. 5
c. 4
d. 8
11. Sound waves composed of but one frequency
is a/an
a. Infra sound
b. Pure tone
c. Structure borne
d. Residual sound

12. Sound wave has two main characteristics

which are
a. Highness and loudness
b. Tone and loudness
c. Pitch and loudness
d. Rarefactions and compressions
13. When waves bend away from straight lines of travel, it
is called
a. Reflection
b. Diffraction
c. Rarefaction
d. Refraction

14. The amplitude of sound waves, the maximum

displacement of each air particle, is the property which
perceive as _____ of a sound
a. Pitch
b. Intensity
c. Loudness
d. Harmonics
15. It is the weakest sound that average human
hearing can detect.
a. SPL = 0 dB
b. Threshold of hearing
c. Reference pressure = 2 x 10-5N/m2
d. A, b, c

16. What is a device that is used to measure the

hearing sensitivity of a person?
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer
17. What is the device used in measuring sound pressure
levels incorporating a microphone, amplification, filtering
and a display.
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer

18. What weighted scale in a sound level meter gives a

reading that is most closely to the response of the
human ear?
a. Weighted scale A
b. Weighted scale B
c. Weighted scale C
d. Weighted scale D
19. For aircraft noise measurements, the weighting
scale that is used is _____.
a. Weighted scale A
b. Weighted scale B
c. Weighted scale C
d. Weighted scale D

20. It is the device used to calibrate an SLM?

a. Microphone
b. Pistonphone
c. Telephone
d. Filter
21. _____ is the sound power measured over
the area upon which is received.
a. Sound pressure
b. Sound energy
c. Sound intensity
d. Sound pressure level

22. A measure of the intensity of sound in

comparison to another sound intensity
a. Phon
b. Decibel
c. Pascal
d. Watts
23. Calculate the sound intensity level in dB of a
sound whose intensity is 0.007 W/m2.
a. 95 dB
b. 91 dB
c. 98 dB
d. 101 dB

24. What is the sound pressure level for a given

sound whose RMS pressure is 200/m2?
a. 200 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 140 dB
d. 14 dB
25. What is the sound intensity for an RMS
pressure of 200 Pascal?
a. 90 W/m2
b. 98 W/m2
c. 108 W/m2
d. 88 W/m2

26. The sound pressure level is increased by

_____ dB if the pressure is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
27. The sound pressure level is increased by
_____ dB if the intensity is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

28. If four identical sounds are added what is the

increase in level in dB?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
29. The transmission of sound from one room to an
adjacent room, via common walls, floors or ceilings.
a. Flanking transmission
b. Reflection
c. Refraction
d. Reverberation

30. _____ is the continuing presence of an audible sound

after the sound source has stop.
a. Flutter echo
b. Sound concentration
c. Sound shadow
d. Reverberation
31. Required time for any sound to decay to 60 dB
a. Echo time
b. Reverberation time
c. Delay time
d. Transient time

32. A room containing relatively little sound absorption

a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Free-field
33. A room in which the walls offer essentially 100%
absorption, therefore simulating free field conditions.
a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Closed room

34. Calculate the reverberation time of the room, which has

a volume of 8700 ft3 and total sound absorption 140
sabines.
a. 0.3 sec
b. 3.5 sec
c. 3 sec
d. 0.53 sec
35. It is an audio transducer that converts acoustic
pressure in air into its equivalent electrical impulses
a. Loudspeaker
b. Amplifier
c. Baffle
d. Microphone

36. _____ is a pressure type microphone with permanent

coil as a transducing element.
a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Magnetic
d. Carbon
37. A microphone which has an internal
impedance of 25 kΩ is _____ type.
a. High impedance
b. Low impedance
c. Dynamic
d. Magnetic

38. A microphone that uses the piezoelectric effect

a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Crystal
d. Carbon
39. _____ is a type of loudspeaker driver with an effective
diameter of 5 inches used at midrange audio frequency.
a. Tweeter
b. Woofer
c. Mid-range
d. A or C

40. _____ is measure of how much sound is produced from

the electrical signal.
a. Sensitivity
b. Distortion
c. Efficiency
d. Frequency response
41. It describes the output of a microphone over a range of
frequencies.
a. Directivity
b. Sensitivity
c. Frequency response
d. All of the above

42. A loudspeaker radiates an acoustic power of 1 mW if

the electrical input is 10 W. What is its rated efficiency?
a. -10 dB
b. -20 dB
c. -30 dB
d. -40 dB
43. An amplifier can deliver 100 W to a loudspeaker. If the
rated efficiency of the loudspeaker is -60 dB. What is the
maximum intensity 300 ft from it?
a. 10 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 30 dB
d. 40 dB

44. Speaker is a device that

a. Converts sound waves into current and voltage
b. Converts current variations into sound waves
c. Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
d. Converts electrical energy to electromagnetic energy
45. The impedance of most drivers is about _____
ohms at their resonant frequency.
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10

46. It is a transducer used to convert electrical

energy to mechanical energy.
a. Microphone
b. Baffle
c. Magnetic assemble
d. Driver
47. It is an enclosure used to prevent front and back wave
cancellation.
a. Loudspeaker
b. Driver
c. Baffle
d. Frame

48. A circuit that divides the frequency components into

separate bands in order to have individual feeds to the
different drivers.
a. Suspension system
b. Dividing network
c. Magnet assembly
d. Panel board
49. _____ is early reflection of sound.
a. Echo
b. Pure sound
c. Reverberation
d. Intelligible sound

50. Noise reduction system used for film sound in

movie.
a. Dolby
b. DBx
c. dBa
d. dBk
51. Using a microphone at less than the recommended
working distance will create a _____ which greatly
increases the low frequency signals.
a. Roll-off
b. Proximity effect
c. Drop out
d. None of the choices

52. What is the unit of loudness?

a. Sone
b. Phon
c. Decibel
d. Mel
53. A unit of noisiness related to the perceived
noise level
a. Noy
b. dB
c. Sone
d. Phon

54. What is the loudness level of a 1KHz tone if its

intensity is 1 x 10-5W/cm2?
a. 100 phons
b. 105 phons
c. 110 phons
d. 100 phons