Particulate Removals

Arie Dipareza Syafei

dipareza@enviro.its.ac.id
Dasar-dasar Pengendalian Partikulat
 Definition and Sources
• Particle or particulate matter: tiny particles or liquid droplets
suspended in the air contain a variety of chemical components.
Larger particles are visible as smoke or dust and settle out
relatively rapidly
• Dry particulates emitted from:
– Industry
– Mining
– construction activities
– Incinerators
– internal combustion engines (from cars, trucks, buses, factories,
construction sites, tilled fields, unpaved roads, stone crushing, and
wood burning)
– natural sources (volcanoes, forest fires, pollen, and windstorms)
• Other particles are formed in the atmosphere by chemical reactions

3
 Flowing Fluid and Particles
• When a flowing fluid (engineering and science
applications consider liquid and gaseous states
as fluid) approaches a stationary object (a metal
plate, fabric thread, or large water droplet)  the
fluid flow will diverge around that object
• Particles in the fluid (because of inertia) will not
follow stream flow exactly, but tend to
continue in their original directions
• If the particles have enough inertia and are
located close enough to the stationary object,
they collide with the object and can be collected
by it
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Flowing Fluid and Particles (Cont’d)

Particle collection of a stationary object

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 Interaction of Particles with Gas
• The theory assumes gases (along with molecules
as rigid spheres that travel in straight lines)
contain a large number of molecules that are
small enough so that the relevant distances
between them are discontinuous
• Air molecules travel at an average of 1519 ft/sec
(463 m/sec) at standard conditions  Speed
decreases with increased molecule weight
• As the square root of absolute temperature
increases, molecular velocity increases 
temperature is an indication of the kinetic energy
of gas molecules
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 Interaction of Particles with Gas (Cont’d)
• Gas viscosity represents the transfer of
momentum by randomly moving molecules from
a faster moving layer of gas to an adjacent slower
moving layer of gas Viscosity of a gas is
independent of pressure but will increase as
temperature increases
• Diffusion transfer of gas molecules is from a
higher to a lower concentration  Movement of
gas molecules by diffusion is directly proportional
to the concentration gradient, inversely
proportional to concentration, and proportional to
the square root of absolute temperature

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 Reynolds number
• The Reynolds number characterizes gas flow, a
dimensionless index that describes the flow regime
using this equation:

Re = Reynolds number
p = gas density, pounds per cubic foot (kilograms
per cubic meter)
Ug = gas velocity, feet per second (meters per
second)
D = characteristic length, feet (meters)
η = gas viscosity, lbm/ft·sec (kg/m·sec)
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 Reynolds number (Cont’d)
• The Reynolds number helps to determine the
flow regime, the application of certain
equations, and geometric similarity  Flow is
laminar at low Reynolds numbers and viscous
forces predominate
• Inertial forces dominate the flow at high
Reynolds numbers, when mixing causes the
streamlines to disappear

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 Particulate Collection
• Particles are collected by gravity, centrifugal
force, and electrostatic force, as well as by
impaction, interception, and diffusion
• Impaction occurs when the center of mass of a
particle diverging from the fluid strikes a
stationary object
• Interception occurs when the particle’s center of
mass closely misses the object but, because of
its size, the particle strikes the object
• Diffusion occurs when small particulates happen
to “diffuse” toward the object while passing near it

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 Particulate Size Characteristics And General
Characteristics
• For control purposes, the lower practical limit is about
0.01 µm
• Liquid particulate matter and particulates formed from
liquids (very small particles) are likely to be spherical in
shape
• To express the size of a nonspherical (irregular)
particle as a diameter, several relationships are
important. These include:
– Aerodynamic diameter
– Equivalent diameter
– Sedimentation diameter
– Cut diameter
– Dynamic shape factor
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 Aerodynamic Diameter
• Aerodynamic diameter, da, is the diameter of a
unit density sphere (density = 1.00 g/cm3) that
would have the same settling velocity as the
particle or aerosol in question
• USEPA is interested in how deeply a particle
penetrates into the lung  the agency is more
interested in nominal aerodynamic diameter
than in the other methods of assessing size of
nonspherical particles

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 Equivalent Diameter
• Equivalent diameter, de, is the diameter of a
sphere that has the same value of a physical
property as that of the nonspherical particle
and is given by

where V is volume of the particle

13
 Sedimentation Diameter
• Sedimentation diameter, or Stokes diameter,
ds, is the diameter of a sphere that has the
same terminal settling velocity and density as
the particle it is called the reduced
sedimentation diameter, making it the same as
aerodynamic diameter
• The dynamic shape factor accounts for a non-
spherical particle settling more slowly than a
sphere of the same volume

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 Cut Diameter
• Cut diameter, dc, is the diameter of particles
collected with 50% efficiency, i.e., individual
efficiency εI = 0.5, and half penetrate through
the collector — penetration Pt = 0.5

15
 Dynamic Shape Factor
• Dynamic shape factor, χ, is a dimensionless
proportionality constant relating the equivalent
and sedimentation diameters:

The de equals ds for spherical particles, so χ

for spheres is 1.0

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 Flow Regime of Particle Motion
• Air pollution control devices collect solid or liquid
particles via the movement of a particle in the gas
(fluid) stream  the particle must be subjected to
external forces large enough to separate it from
the gas stream
• Forces acting on a particle include three major
forces as well as other forces:
– Gravitational force
– Buoyant force
– Drag force
– Other forces (magnetic, inertial, electrostatic, and
thermal force, for example)
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• The consequence of acting forces on a particle
results in the settling velocity (the speed at which
a particle settles)
• The settling velocity (also known as the terminal
velocity) is a constant value of velocity reached
when all forces (gravity, drag, buoyancy, etc.)
acting on a body are balanced (when the sum of
all the forces is equal to zero (no acceleration)
• To solve for an unknown particle settling velocity
 we must determine the flow regime of particle
motion
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• K = a dimensionless constant that determines the range of the
fluid-particle dynamic laws
• dp = particle diameter, centimeters or feet
• g = gravity force, cm/sec2or ft/sec2
• pp = particle density, grams per cubic centimeter or pounds per
cubic foot
• pa = fluid (gas) density, grams per cubic centimeter or pounds per
cubic foot
• µ = fluid (gas) viscosity, grams per centimeter-second or pounds
per foot-second
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 K values
• Lists the K values corresponding to different
flow regimes as:
– Laminar regime (also known as Stokes’ law
range): K < 3.3
– Transition regime (also known as intermediate law
range): 3.3 < K, 43.6
– Turbulent regime (also known as Newton’s law
range): K > 43.

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Terminal velocity

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 Cunningham Correction Factor
• Cunningham’s correction factor, which
includes thermal and momentum
accommodation factors based on the Millikan
oil-drop studies and which is empirically
adjusted to fit a wide range of Kn Values
(Knudsen number), is introduced into Stoke’s
law to allow for this slip rate

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23
 Example #1
• Calculate the settling velocity of a particle
moving in a gas stream. Assume the following
information:
dp = particle diameter = 45 µm (45 microns)
g = gravity forces = 980 cm/sec2
pp = particle density = 0.899 g/cm3
pa = fluid (gas) density = 0.012 g/cm3
µ = fluid (gas) viscosity = 1.82 × 10–4 g/cm-
sec
Cf = 1.0 (if applicable)
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 Solution #1
• Calculate the K parameter to determine the proper
flow regime:
K = dp(gpppa/µ2) 0.33
𝑐𝑚 𝑔𝑟 𝑔𝑟 0.33
980 2 𝑥 0.899 3 𝑥 0.012 3
= 45𝑥10−4 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 𝑠 𝑐𝑚
2
𝑐𝑚
1.82 𝑥 10−4 𝑔𝑟Τ𝑐𝑚−𝑠

=3.07
The result demonstrates that the flow regime is
laminar

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 Solution #1 (Cont’d)
• Determine the settling velocity:
v = gpp(dp)2Cf/(18µ)
= 980(0.899)(45×10-4)2(1)/[18(1.82 ×10–4)]
=5.38 cm/sec

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 Activity #1
• Kerjakan soal di bawah, jawab pertanyaan apakah
semakin kecil partikulat semakin lambat settling
velocity nya?
• Calculate the settling velocity of a particle moving in a
gas stream. Assume the following information:
dp = particle diameter = 20 µm (20 microns)
g = gravity forces = 980 cm/sec2
pp = particle density = 0.899 g/cm3
pa = fluid (gas) density = 0.012 g/cm3
µ = fluid (gas) viscosity = 1.82 × 10–4 g/cm-sec
Cf = 1.0 (if applicable)
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 Example #2
• Three differently sized fly ash particles settle
through the air. Calculate the particle terminal
velocity (assume the particles are spherical)
and determine how far each will fall in 30 sec.

28
 Example #2
• Given:
– Fly ash particle diameters = 0.4, 40, 400 µm
– Air temperature and pressure = 238°F (114.44 oC),
1 atm
– Specific gravity (Sg) of fly ash = 2.31
– density water = 62.4 lb/ft3 ~ 999.55 kg/m3
– µ = air viscosity = 0.021 cp = 1.41x10–5 lb/ft-
sec ~ 209.831 x10–5 kg/m-det
– Molar mass of dry air = 29 gr/mol

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 Example #2
• Note: Because the Cunningham correction factor is
usually applied to particles equal to or smaller than 1 µm,
check how it affects the terminal settling velocity for the
0.4-µm particle. For Dp = 0.4um and to compute Cf,
assume particle diameter = 0.5 µm and temperature
= 212°F (100 oC)

30
 Solution #2
• Determine the value for K for each fly ash
particle size settling in air. Calculate the
particle density using the specific gravity
given:
Pp = particle density (specific gravity of fly
ash) x (density of water)
=2.31(62.4)
=144.14 lb/ft3

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• Calculate the density of air:
Pa = air density = PM/RT
= (1)(29)/(0.7302)(238+460) = 0.0569 lb/ft3
µ = air viscosity = 0.021 cp = 1.41x10–5 lb/ft-
sec
PV = nRT; PV = (gr/MR)RT;
Gr/V = P(MR)/RT
Gr/MR = n
32
• Determine the flow regime (K):
K = dp(gpppa/µ2) 0.33
For dp = 0.4 µm:
K = [(0.4)/(25,400)(12)] [32.2(144.14)(0.0569)
/(1.41x10-5)2]0.33 = 0.0144
where 1 ft = 25,400(12) µm

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For dp = 40 µm:
K = [(40)/(25,400)(12)] [32.2(144.14)(0.0569)
/(1.41x10-5)2]0.33 = 1.44

For dp = 400 µm:

K = [(400)/(25,400)(12)] [32.2(144.14)
(0.0569)/(1.41x10-5)2]0.33 = 14.4

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• Select the appropriate law, determined by the
numerical value of K:
K < 3.3; Stokes’ law range
3.3 < K < 43.6; intermediate law range
43.6 < K < 2360; Newton’s law range
For dp = 0.4 µm, the flow regime is laminar
For dp = 40 µm, the flow regime is also laminar
For dp = 400 µm, the flow regime is the
transition regime
35
• For dp = 0.4 µm:
v = gpp(dp)2/(18µ)
=(32.2)[(0.4)/25,400)(12)]2(144.14)/
(18)(1.41 x10-5)
=3.15 ×10-5 ft/sec

36
• For dp = 40 µm:
v = gpp(dp)2/(18µ)
=(32.2)[(40)/25,400)(12)]2(144.14)/
(18)(1.41 x10-5)
=0.315 ft/sec

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• For dp = 400 µm (use transition regime
equation):
v = 0.153g0.71(dp)1.14(pp)0.71/(µ0.43p0.29)
= 0.153(32.2)0.71[(400)/(25,000)(12)]1.14
(144.14)0.71/(1.41x10-5)0.430.05690.29)
=8.90 ft/sec

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• Calculate distance

For dp = 40 µm, distance = (time)(velocity):

Distance = 30(0.315) = 9.45 ft (2.88 m)

For dp = 400 µm, distance = (time)(velocity):

Distance = 30(8.90) = 267 ft (81.38 m)

For dp = 0.4 µm, without Cunningham correction

factor, distance = (time)(velocity):
Distance = 30(3.15x10-5) = 94.5x10-5 ft
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• For dp = 0.4 µm with Cunningham correction
factor, the velocity term must be corrected
• For our purposes, assume particle diameter =
0.5 µm and temperature = 212°F to find the Cf
value  Cf is approximately equal to 1.446
• The corrected velocity = vCf
= 3.15x10-5 (1.446) = 4.55x10-5 ft/sec
Distance = 30(4.55x10-5) = 1.365 x10-3 ft
(0.00042 m)
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 Example #3
• Determine the minimum distance downstream
from a cement dust-emitting source that will be
free of cement deposit. The source is equipped
with a cyclone (efficiency ~99%). Given:
– Particle size range of cement dust = 2.5 to 50.0 µm
– Specific gravity of the cement dust = 1.96
– Wind speed = 3.0 mi/h
– µ = air viscosity at 60°F = 1.22 × 10–5 lb/ft-sec
– µm (1 µm = 10–6) = 3.048 × 105 ft
• The cyclone is located 150 ft above ground level.
Assume ambient conditions are at 60°F and 1
atm. Disregard meteorological aspects
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 Solution #3
• A particle diameter of 2.5 µm is used to calculate
the minimum distance downstream free of dust
because the smallest particle will travel the
greatest horizontal distance
• Determine the value of K for the appropriate size
of the dust. Calculate the particle density (pp)
using the specific gravity given:
pp =(specific gravity of fly ash)(density of water)
=1.96(62.4)
=122.3 lb/ft3
42
• Calculate the air density (Pa). Use modified
ideal gas equation, PV = nRuT = (m/M)RuT
P =(mass)(volume)
=PM / RuT
=(1)(29)/[0.73(60+460)] = 0.0764 lb/ft3

43
• Determine the flow regime (K):
K = dp(gpppa/µ2) 0.33
For dp = 2.5 µm:
K = [(2.5)/(25,400)(12)][32.2)(122.3)(0.0764)
/(1.22x10-5)2]0.33 = 0.104
where 1 ft = 25,400(12) µm = 304,800 µm

44
• Determine which fluid-particle dynamic law
applies for the preceding value of K. Compare
the K value of 0.104 with the following range:
K < 3.3; Stokes’ law range
3.3 ≤ K < 43.6; intermediate law range
43.6 < K < 2360; Newton’s law range
The flow is in the Stokes’ law range; thus it is
laminar

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• Calculate the terminal settling velocity in feet
per second. For Stokes’ law range, the velocity
is
v = gpp(dp)2/(18µ)
=(32.2)[(2.5)/25,400)(12)]2(122.3)/
(18)(1.22 x10-5)
=1.21 ×10-3 ft/sec

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• Calculate the time for settling:
t = (outlet height)/(terminal velocity)
=150/1.21x10–3
=1.24x105 sec = 34.4 h
• Calculate the horizontal distance traveled:
Distance = (time for descent)(wind speed)
= (1.24x105 )(3.0/3600)
=103.3 miles
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Gravity Settler (Pengendap secara Gravitasi)

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 Gravity Settlers
• Gravity settlers have long been used by
industry for removing solid and liquid waste
materials from gaseous streams
• A gravity settler is actually nothing more than a
large chamber in which the horizontal gas
velocity is slowed allowing particles to settle
out by gravity (small particles <50 µm)
• Gravity settlers have the advantage of having
low initial cost and are relatively inexpensive
to operate because not much can go wrong
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Gravitational settling chamber

50
Baffled gravitational settling chamber

51
Gravity Settling Chamber Theoretical Collection
Efficiency

52
The settling velocity

53
The minimum particle size (dp)∗ in microns
• The minimum particle size that can be
collected in the unit with 100% efficiency

54
• Because the density of the particle pp is
usually much greater than the density of gas
pa, the quantity pp – pa reduces to pp  The
velocity can be written as:
V = Q/BL
where
Q = volumetric flow
B = chamber width
L = chamber length
55
• So, it is reduced as:

where Nc = number of parallel chambers: 1, for simple settling chamber

and N trays +1, for a Howard settling chamber

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• the overall efficiency can be calculated using

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• When flow is turbulent

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 Minimum Particle Size
• Most gravity settlers are pre-cleaners that
remove the relatively large particles (>60 µm)
before the gas stream enters a more efficient
particulate control device such as a cyclone,
bag house, electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or
scrubber

59
 Example #4
• A hydrochloric acid mist in air at 25°C is collected
in a gravity settler. Calculate the smallest mist
droplet (spherical in shape) collected by the
settler. Stokes’ law applies; assume the acid
concentration is uniform through the inlet cross-
section of the unit. Given:
– Dimensions of gravity settler = 30 ft wide, 20 ft high,
50 ft long
– Actual volumetric flow rate of acid gas in air = 50 ft3
/sec
– Specific gravity of acid = 1.6
– Viscosity of air = 0.0185 cp = 1.243 × 10–5 lb/ft-sec
– Density of air = 0.076 lb/ft3
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 Solution #4
• Calculate the density of the acid mist using
the specific gravity given:
pp = particle density (specific gravity of fly
ash)(density of water)
1.6(62.4) = 99.84 lb/ft3

61
• Calculate the minimum particle diameter in
feet and microns, assuming that Stokes’ law
applies. For Stokes’ law range:
Minimum dp = (18µQ/gp BL)0.5
Minimum dp = [(18)(1.243 10-5)(50)/(32.2)
(99.84)(30)(50)]0.5
= 4.82x10-5 ft
=(4.82x10-5 ft)(3.048x105 µm/ft)
=14.7 µm
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 Example #5
• A settling chamber that uses a traveling grate stoker is
installed in a small heat plant. Determine the overall
collection efficiency of the settling chamber, given the
operating conditions, chamber dimensions, and particle
size distribution data. Given:
– Chamber width = 10.8 ft
– Chamber height = 2.46 ft
– Chamber length = 15.0 ft
– Volumetric flow rate of contaminated air stream = 70.6 scfs
– Flue gas temperature = 446°F
– Flue gas pressure = 1 atm
– Particle concentration = 0.23 gr/scf
– Particle specific gravity = 2.65
– Standard conditions = 32°F, 1 atm
63
 Particle Size Distribution Data

Assume that the actual terminal settling velocity is one-

half of the Stokes’ law velocity.
64
 Solution #5
• Plot the size efficiency curve for the settling
chamber. The size efficiency curve is needed
to calculate the outlet concentration for each
particle size (range). These outlet
concentrations are then used to calculate the
overall collection efficiency of the settling
chamber. The collection efficiency for a settling
chamber can be expressed in terms of the
terminal velocity, volumetric flow rate of
contaminated stream, and chamber
dimensions:
65
• η = vBL/Q = [gpp(dp)2/(18µ)](BL/Q)
where
η = fractional collection efficiency
v = terminal settling velocity
B = chamber width
L = chamber length
Q = volumetric flow rate of the stream

66
• Express the collection efficiency in terms of
the particle diameter dp. Replace the terminal
settling velocity in the preceding equation with
Stokes’ law. Because the actual terminal
settling velocity is assumed to be one half of
the Stokes’ law velocity (according to the given
problem statement), the velocity equation
becomes:
v = g(dp)2pp/36µ
η = [gpp(dp)2/(36µ)](BL/Q)
67
• Determine the viscosity of the air in pounds
per foot-second:
Viscosity of air at 446oF = 1.75x10-5 lb/ft-sec
• Determine the particle density in pounds per
cubic foot:
Pp = 2.65(62.4) = 165.4 lb/ft3

68
• Determine the actual flow rate in actual cubic feet
per second. To calculate the collection efficiency
of the system at the operating conditions, the
standard volumetric flow rate of contaminated air
of 70.6 scfs is converted to actual volumetric flow
of 130 acfs:
Qa = Qs(Ta/Ts)
=70.6(446+460)/(32+460)
=130 acfs
Express the collection efficiency in terms of dp, with
dp in feet. Also express the collection efficiency in
terms of dp, with dp in microns. 69
• Use the following equation; substitute values for
pp, g, B, L, µ, and Q in consistent units. Use the
conversion factor for feet to microns. To convert
dp from square feet to square microns, dp is
divided by (304,800)2
η = [gpp(dp)2/36µ)(BL/Q)
=(32.2)(165.4)(10.8)(15)(d ) /[(36)(1.75×10-5)
(130)(304,800)2]
=1.134x10-4 (dp)2
where dp is in microns
70
• Calculate the collection efficiency for each
particle size. For a particle diameter of 10 µm:
η = (1.134x10-4)(dp)2 = (1.134x10-4)(10)2
= 1.1 x 10-2 = 1.1%

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• Provides the collection efficiency for each
particle size

Size efficiency curve for settling chamber

72
• Calculate the overall collection efficiency
η = Σwiηi
=(0.027)(1.1)+(0.069)(7.1)+(0.094)(14.0) +
(0.105)(23.0)+(0.105)(34.0)+(0.095)(48.0)+
(0.070)(64.0)+(0.095)(83.0)+(0.340)(100.0)
=59.0%

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Data for Calculation of Overall Collection
Efficiency
74
 References
• Vallero D. (2008) Fundamental of Air
Pollutions. 4th Edition, Elsevier, New York
• Spellman F., R., and Whiting N.E. (2005).
Environmental Engineer’s Mathematics
Handbook. CRC Press, Florida, US. (Chapter
8)

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