38.1 The Photoelectric Effect In 1886, Heinrich Hertz, who was the first to demonstrate that electromagnetic waves, can be artificially generated, noticed that « negatively charged electroscope could be discharged by shining ultraviolet light on it Hertz’s observation caught the attention of J.J. Thomson, who inferred that the ultraviolet light was causing the electode to emit electrons, thus restoring itself to electric neurafty. The emission of electrons froma substance due to light striking its surface came tobe called the photoelectei effect. The emitted electrons are often called photoelectrons to indicate ther or but they are identical in every respect io all other electrons. Although this discovery might seem to be a minor footnote in the hivory of ‘ence, it soon became a, or maybe the, pivotal event that opened the door to new FIGURE 38.1 Lenard’s experimental device to study the photoelectric effect. Ultraviolet light causes the metal “The photoclectrons form a current ‘Tae potcatial ‘The current can be measured difference can while the potential difference. bechanged or the light frequency. and theiGuRE 2 The photoelectric current fs. funtion ofthe ligt frequency [or lighe of constant incensity 1. The current / is directly proportional to the light intensity. Ifthe light intensity is 1 doubled, the current also doubles. * 2. The current appears without delay when the light is applied. To Lenard, this No mater tow weak meant within the ~0.1s with which his equipment could respond. Later experiments showed that the current begins in less than I ns. 3. Photoelectrons are emitted only if the light frequency f exceeds a threshold o ~tesnoliogieney frequency fy. This is shown in the graph of FIGURE 38.2. [No matter how intense the fight, 4. The value of the threshold frequency fy depends on the type of metal from which thee snocuret it) —fy the cathode is made. ricURE 38.3 The photoelectric currene 5: Hf the potential difference AV is more than about 1 V positive (anode positive a function of the battery potential. with respect to the cathode), the current does not change as AV is increased. If A oreimene shy AV is made negative (anode negative with respect to the cathode), by reversing the battery, the current decreases until, at some voltage AV =—Vyop the current reaches zero. The value of Vgop is called the stopping potential. This behavior is shown in FIGURE 38.3. 6. The value of Viop is the s tense light causes a larger current, as Figure 38.3 current ceases when AV =—Vioye 1 No current loves AVE Van ime for both weak light and intense light. A more in- shows, but in both cases the Weaker light ot "Te current becomes nde- pondenof Avior aV =o a‘The minimum energy to remove a drop of water from the pool is mgh. Removing this drop takes more than the minimum energy. fF Adding energy to the water and making waves can cause a few of the most energetic drops to escape. ‘A useful analogy, shown in FicuRE 384, isthe water ina swimming pool. Water ‘molecules do not spontaneously leap out ofthe pool ifthe waters calm. To remove a ‘water molecule, you must do work on it to lift it upward, agains the force of gravity. ‘A minimum energy is needed to extract a water molecule, namely the energy needed tolifta molecule that isright atthe surface. Removing a water molecule that s deeper requires more than the minimum energy. People playing in the pool add energy tothe ‘water, causing waves. If suficient energy is added, a few water molecules will gain ‘enough energy to splash ver the edge and eave the poo Similaely, a mininum energy is needed to fee an electron fom a meal. To extract anelecirn, you woud need toexer a force on tan put ie, do workon it) unt its speed is large enough to escape. The minimum energy E needed to fee an electron is called the work function of the metal. Some electrons, lke the deeper water ‘molecules, may require more eneryy than Et escape, but all will require a least. Different metals have different work functions; 7813.1 provides a short list, Notice that work functions are given in electron volsEinstein’s Postulates Einstein framed three postulates about light quanta and their interaction with matter: 1. Light of frequency f consists of discrete quanta, each of energy E = hf. Each photon travels at the speed of light c. 2. Light quanta are emitted or absorbed on an all-or-nothing basis. A substance can emit L or 2 or 3 quanta, but not 1.5. Similarly, an electron in a metal must absorb an entire quantum of light at once: it cannot absorb half a quantum. 3. A light quantum, when absorbed by a metal, delivers its entire energy to one electron. FIGURE 28.7 The creation of a phoroeleczron. One quantum of fight wih energy E= Wf = By Work function Ly AA single electron has absorned "tr cmtce energy ofthe ght ‘quartum and has escaped5. ll You need to design a photodetector that can respond to the entire range of visible light. What is the maximum possible work function of the cathode? 38.5. Model: The threshold frequency for the ejection of photoelectrons is fy = Ey/it where Ey is the work funtion. Solve: The visible region of light extends from 400 nm to 700 nm. For 4 = 400 nm, the work fimetion is slo : Ez for = - CBX10 I9G.on10! ms), _1eV Ao 400x10° m 16x10? J =3.leV For =700 nm. _ 6.6310 19930108 ms) Le 700x10° m 16x10? J The cathode that will work in the entire visible range must have a work function of 1.78 eV or less. Ey =L78 eV