Logic


Logic: The discipline by which the mind guides itself, and acts in Scientific
an ordered and easy way, and without error, to get to the truth. certain &
scientific
Presumes we CAN know the truth
With Evidence
of Facts

Instrument of philosophy, requires practice Probable/
Dialectics
when you can't

2 Types of Knowing: be
certain

Intelligent: knowing things essentially and universally. Logic


Sense: through external senses. There is nothing in the
intellect that is not first in the senses. Rhetorical
“if this were the
case....”

Acts of Intellect
W/O Evidence
of Facts

Simple Apprehension; x Poetic
“how beautiful

Judgment: simple concepts together, x = y would x....”


Reason: two or more truths, come to new truth
 Formal Logic: Concentrated not on the truth but on whether or not a

Formal Object of all philosophy is REAL BEING. Of Logic is conclusion truly follows premises, then you are engaged in formal
being as it exists in consideration of the mind. reasoning. Italians are gorillas. Gorillas blond. Italians blond.


Essence: that which something is, without which it cannot be  Material Logic: not concerned with validity but with truth...Material
without. Logic. The syllogism ‘All rational animals are risible, all men are
rational animals, therefore all men are risible.’ is material logic.

Science: knowing the way things are. Knowing the facts.
Knowing the proper reasons for the facts as well.  Minor logic: What we should do to get to scientific truth.


Wisdom- knowing everything/the whole and all of the thoughts  Major Logic: Can I get to the truth? Can I get to the truth is not a
in relation to the whole. logical question, it is part of metaphysics (epistemological question).
(Not in Thomistic tradition)

Evidence: That which appears in itself and immediately
 Symbolic Logic: Sentences, Terms, Class, Relation

Property: Some characteristic of a thing that does not enter into
what the thing is essentially but is always present whenever the
thing is there but is not present when it is not there
 Logic

Knowing: Having something in an immaterial way. Grey Tactile
Elephant in your mind. Having the Other as Other. Having External Tasting
Senses Smelling
something Intentionally. Hearing
Sight

Object: unit of intelligibility

Act: Simple apprehension
Senses

Product of Act: Formal Concept (express)

Content in Product- Objective Concept Common Sense
Internal Senses Memory
Imagination

Impress Species: the THING that is the instrument for entering Cogitative
into the mind. The actual CAT

Express Species: knowledge of CAT produced by knower, not the
cat. Knowing the cat intelligently....abstraction. AKA: Concept Common: via senses. Memory: sense, but as “past”. Imagination:
or Idea. combine senses, but abstracted from reality.

Conventional Iconic
Ways which we Image looks like
comm. Not the object itself.
connected to Instruments
thing Things that look
Sign like the object,
Natural but not object Non-Iconic
Exists a Doesn't look like,
connection but has natural
between sign Formal link. smoke/fire
Signs, where which what is and object Express
signified has no natural Species.
connection with the sign itself The actual thing.
Study this in
(language), Logic
 Concepts: Definition of concept. A collection of
Singular notes (intelligible aspects) that belong to what you are
*Only one thing,
ex: Sox the Cat
thinking about. Intention or comprehension of the
concept “man” is the whole of the notes that characterize
Extension “man” (rational animal).
*indicates wholes of
things which concept Restricted
is applicable *ex: only some
particular cats

Universal
*does not exisit
ex: universal Cat Distributive
*applies to every
instance
Unrestricted
All of the group
All Cats
Collective
*only to a group
ex: 12 cats...12
not
applied to “cat”
Infinite
*Only negative of
what not is.
Common
Ex: Man not god
*indicates only a
part of what Non-quiditative
Comprehension so.th. *not via essential
*whole of the notes is. notes. Ex: man
that characterize Finite Incomplete
*what something is not feathered,
something etc *enough to
is Proper know,
*indicates but not all
complete Apprehensive
set of essence Quiditative enough, but still
*what it is not all
in essence Complete
*All essential or
necessary notes,
“adequate”
Comprehensive
*All knowability,
only God knows
like this
 Strictly Such
exactly the same
Identical
exact same Peter is Peter Concepts
objects Phoneme
unit of written/speech. sound

Equipotent Sememe
*same, but differ smallest concept, unit of meaning
perspec. Linguistic
Equilat vs (Moneme)
Relation 7th Concept Morpheme
equiang written unit of meaning...”goat”

Lexeme
dictionary unit. Run, running, ran, etc

Impertinent
don't relate to
each
other. Ex: “man”
and “black” Equal
inseparable
“man” & “risible”
Sequent
are naturally Contradictory
linked negate each
to each other. Unequal other
“man” & “animal” “man” & “non-
man=animal man”
animal not= man
Diverse Contrary
different things no third
Pertinent possibility
pertain in some
way
to each other Properly
Repugnant Privatives
*not same, but negation of what
Repugnant reasons for so s/b there.
“sighted” &
“blind”
Disperate
*not same, no Relatives
reason. need both to
“man” & “virtue” exits
“son” & “father”
Concepts Direct
see cat, know
Complex
*combo of
cat things.
Ex: Paris
(not Hilton)
Immediate Absolute
Don't need (categoramatic)
anything Retrospection Integrity intelligible by
else to know itself
Simple ex: “goat”
*one essence
ex: “man”
Conotative
Reflection (*needs context.
“gray” “in”, “but”,
etc

Origin

Practical
*produces action
“shoot gray cat”

By Inclusion
part of a scene Aim
Speculative
just contemplate
ex: gay cat is X
By
Construction
can build in mind
ex: '2' vs 2
Mediate million
Must have other
concepts to
know By Acquired
Objectification via senses, we
making self as take initiative
object of the Mediate
object 2nd act of mind Origin 2
a=b, b=c
Inferential so a=c Infused
implied when God puts it
know there.
first concept Immediate
if know Christ, prophets
“all Italians”,
know
“some Italians”
 Universals In Signification
the word “cat”

In Representation

Universality: One which is found in many as formal concept
identified with them and multiplied in them. Abstract Universals
as such In Essendo (Being)
what it makes something, “this”
the one found in many

Types of Universal: in Signification, in
In Causing
Representation, in Being, and in Causing universal that causes all...GOD Separable
Not

Abstraction: Total, Formal, Of Confusion fundamentally
joined together

Another Division of Universal Real
Inseperable
Connection is

Material- real thing, not actually universal necessary.
“smile” need

Fundamental- real universal, metaphysical, any “face”
Distinction
triangle
Rationis

Formal- logical, real universal Peter is Peter
same, but using

Distinction: Something by which one thing is not the Distinctions two instances
other thing. of Reason
Rationcinata
same, but
reason
for diff. “Virtual”
distinction

Total
1st Degree
Take the thing as a whole and leave
out
the “this” characteristics that make it
“this” thing.
Formal
Abstraction 2nd Degree
Not taking whole intelligibility, but only
a part of the form.

Of Confusion
3rd Degree
Can't leave something but allow it to
fade
in the background. Proper to knowing
being.
Types of Authentic Universals:
- Univocal – One notion that applies to many in exactly the same way
- Anaological – Applies to things totally differently, but can group,
with reason, things together. Ex: “high”
Extrinsic
Of Attribution
“healthy”
Intrinsic
Analogical “being”
Notion applying to things
differently, but can group
with reasons. Ex:
“healthy” Improper
Types of Of Jesus = Lion of
Authentic Proportionality David
Universals things as whole
relate to each Proper
other “half” proportion

GENUS
According to
Determinable
Part
Indicates ex: animal =
Essence man
Partially
DIFFERENCE
ex: “rational”
Pertaining to
Essence

Univocal SPECIES
One notion that applied Completely
to many in exactly the Indicates
same way Essence

PROPERTY
Predicables necessary
Univocal connect
Universals ex: “risable”
Something
outside
of Essence
ACCIDENT
w/o necessary
connection
ex: “sad”
More on Properties:
can be...
1- In something, but not in every instance. Ex: “doctor” only in “man”, but not every “man”
2- In every instance, but not only in that essence. Ex: “mobile” in every “man”, but not only
“man”
3- Found in every instance in essence, only in there, but not always. Ex: “laughing”
4- Only in essence, every instance, all the time. “Man” and “risability”

Doctrines of Universals
Radical
Radical Kant
Roscelin Exist in the mind, but they have
Only the sound of a word. Conceptualism nothing to do with real things.
Nominalism Only exist in
No Universals the mind Moderate
Moderate
Will of Ockam Francisco Suarez
Only understand the singular thing, Exists, but only as degrees of
everything else are simply similarities. similarity.
Red: pink, orange

Radical
Will of Champeax
They exist, but only within the singular Collectivism Jocelyn Soissons
Realism things we see and touch, etc Exists as Simply a collection or aggregate of
Exist in the real collection things or characteristics which we
Moderate of real things observe in the real world.
world
Aristotle
Real things are singular, but there
exists
in reality a real concept of a
universal idea.
 Criticism:

 Kant: not scientific/rational Predicaments

 Will of Ockam: too complicated SUBSTANCE
QUANTITY

Inside

QUALITY
adding form

Predicaments
10 Categories Outside
by RELATION
Reference

 Substance: that which is apt to exist in and of

itself, not in another, as subject of adhesion
WHERE
 Accident: that which is NOT apt to exist in
and of itself, but as a subject of adhesion
ACCIDENTS
 Quantity: w/o formal determination By Place POSITION

 Quality: by adding form, “gray cat”

 Relation: via outside reference. “Dog” larger DECORATED

than “cat” Entirely
Outside
 Where: “in house”
By Time WHEN
 Position: upside down

 Decorated: wearing ribbon

 Action: cat eating rat ACTION

 Passion: reception of “eating” of the rat in Partially

the cat. Outside

PASSION
 Divisions of Accidents

Discontinuous Habit /
ex: Following slides
Disposition
numbers/math
2, 3, 4, etc

Predicamental
Potency / Following slides
Impotency
Continuous
geometric, linked
Quality
ex: line, surface

Quantity
Sensible
Qualitas
Patibilis
Transcendental / Passion
Numbers Insensible

Anaological Form / Figure

Intensity
es: hot sauce

 Patible quality and passion: types of quality we usually think of,

hot, cold, loud, red, sweet. Passion here means any kind of quality
that is given to a substance (when the apple gets red it has the
passion of redness).

 Potency/impotency: Sheer ability or inability

 Habit/disposition: permanent or removable faculties whose

operations are not fully determined.

 Form/figure: Has to do with the shape of continuous quantity. Form

in the sense of what happens to a geometrical figure.
 Division of Quality: 1 Habit/Disposition

Sense
Intellectus

Speculative Sciatia
Enitative Cognative
santifying grace
Sapentie

Intellectual
Sinderesis

Prudence
Practical
Habit/
Dispostio Ethics
n Strictly

Arts

Theological
Virtues
Operative
disposes to do Cardinal
soth
Repetitive

Vices

Actions
Less-Strictly
Themselves
 Division of Quality: 1 Potency/Impotency
Agent
Intellect
Incorporeal
Priestly
Character

Nutritive
Active
transative acts

Vital Augmatative

Corporeal
Generative

Potency/ Resistative
Impotency
Non-Vital
sheer
ability Vis Matrix

Intellect

Incorporeal Will

Passive
knowing,
loving...

Senses
Corporeal
Sense
Appetite
 Relation & Where & When
Transcendental

Relation of One Measure of

Reason Other
Final
Relation
W/ Dependence
in Being
Predicamental Formal
Without Any
Measure
Efficient

Real
Material
Quantity

W/O
Dependence Quality

Substance

Operation

Non- Natural
Circumscriptive Information Simutaneously

Whereness When Futurily

Hypostatic

Posteriarity
Praeternatural
Eucharistic

Circumscriptive Infernal
 Porphyrian Tree

Substance
supreme genus

Uncomposed
Composed
angles/God Substance (on the first level is a supreme genus) is the most general kind of
thing to be divided, the most fundamental kind of things there is. If you take a
substance and add a (intermediate) difference, namely the difference of the
Body substance being composed, you get to the notion of a body. Body is still a
genus. If you add another difference, namely whether it is living, you have an
animate being (still a genus). If you add sensate, you get to the substantial
genus of animal (lowest genus). If you add to the genus of animal the
Living Non-living (specific) difference rational, you get man, which is a species. If you add to
chemicals, etc man an (individual) difference, you get “Harry”.

In modern botany and zoology, esp. in regard to man, the word “man : homo”
Animated
Being
is not a specific term. It is a generic indication. So in zoology you can have a
number of different species of homo, whereas in philosophical terminology
man is a species. You can have varieties of these species (man, women,
chinese…) but not specific difference that could be indicated to perfect man.
Non-Sensate
Sensate
plants Whereas in zoological terminology, the species of men we are is homo sapiens
(rational animal in zoolog. termin.). In modern botany and zoology the species
is always indicated by two words. The homo neanderthalus is considered s
different species of man. Don’t be confused by modern terminology. To the
Animal philosopher Neanderthal belongs to the genus of man.

We have finished the speculative part of the logic of the first act of the mind.
Rational Brutes Now we get to the rules for the mind, how to use these things to get to the
truth.

Man
(species)

Harry
- Rules of 1st Act of Mind
1- Attend to what is evident

Definition
2- Disregard anything not evident
3- Look for essential consistencies Six Classical Rules of Good Definition
*distinguish between “evident” and “evidently credible” 1. Def convertible with defined
*cannot know essence by simple gaze 2. Def s/b clearer than defined
3. Proceeds from the proximate genus to
Definition of Definition: Set of concepts whereby you can differences
indicate what something is in such a way you can 4. Thing should not enter definition
distinguish between everything else. 5. Must not be negative
6. S/B short

Clarifications: Synthetic
1. Only things w/ one essence can be defined give reality name
2. Only Universal intelligibilities strictly defined
Semantic
3. Can't define things too generally
4. Can't define so.th. Already determined.
Analytic
“individual” Non-
5. Define two things at same time “god” “love” Etymological

Nominal Syntactic
synonomous
Etymological
history

Physical Parts
rat soul, PM
Essential
Metaphysical
“rational animal”

Definition Recursive
Intrinsic
via intell notes Through
w/i Properties
Descriptive
Through
Collctn
of Accidents
Real

Final Cause - Final Cause: “a corporeal substance destined

Extrinsic
to seek God.
via intell notes
w/o - Efficient Cause: “corporeal being whose soul
Efficient Cause is immediately made by God”
 Division
Definition of Division: Expression of distributing a
thing/name into its parts.

Division Includes:
1- Parts Five Classical Rules of Good Division
2- Whole
3- Basis for division 1. Don't change foundation of division
Equivocal
2. s/b complete. Sum of parts equal whole
3. Part should exclude each other. Ex: male/female
4. s/b short
Of Names Univocal 5. s/b ordered

Analogous

Per Se
Univocal
Universal
Whole
Analogous

Of Things

Physical Parts
Essential
Metaphysical
Parts
Individual Real
Division Things

Entitative
Substance via Intergral Body
Accidents Non-Essential
Parts
Non-Entitative
Accidents via Potestitive
Per Accidents
substance

Final Cause
Accidental to
accident
Efficient Cause
 2nd Act - Sentences
- 2nd Act of the Mind: That kind of the known where the
knower takes some sort of stance in regards to what he
knows....”the elephant is gray”.

- Judgement: Sentence which unites or divides tow

concepts by affirming or denying. Every judgement
consists of a subject and a predicate.

One must consider:

Reality – Fact
Act – Judgement
Product - Formal Concept of judgement
Content – Mental predisposition
External Sign - Enunciation
Imperfect
incomplete
Vocative
get attention
Of the 2nd Act
of Mind
Speculative Interrogative
judgment question

Imperative
Sentences Ordinative
command
Perfect

Exclamation Depretive

Performative Optative
“I vow”

3rd Act of Mind

Types of Judgements Affirmative Copulative
and
Categorical

Negative Disjunction
Form OR

Conjunctive
X or Y

Obviously Conditional
Complex if, then
Hypothetical
complex 1st Degree
judgment Exponibles

2nd Degree
Necessary
man is risable Hidden
Complex Exclusive
Impossible ONLY
Matter man is gorilla
Excepted
Judgment Contingent
men are
musicans A
Reduplative
“all Italians”
Universal E - negative
“all” “no Italian”
Particular
“some” I
Quantity “some Italians”
Singular Certainty
“this” O - negative
“some, but not
all”
Indefinite Possibility
Possibly
Probability
Impossibility
True/False Conceivable

Quality Contingently
Relation
in essence
Necessarily
 Symbolic Logic: Type of logic that uses symbols to depict
the logical arguments. Uses truth tables.

Truth Table: Indicates whether a whole statement is true or

false based on the falsity of the individual elements.

1=true, 0=false. Uses p's and q's for arguments. Two types
of notation:

Polish: Kpq (K='and')

English: p .q ( .='and')

Example of the copulative “and” table. “All Italians are

smart AND all Swedes are blue”
p q Kpq
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0

Names of Complex (Hypothetic) Sentences:

Aristotelian Symbolic
Copulative 'and' Conjunctive
Disjunctive 'either-or' Alternative
Conjunctive 'this and that' Disjunctive
Conditional 'if-then' Bi-conditional

Different Types of “IS”

- Simple existence, “the elephant is”
- Exists in a certain way, “the elephant is gray”
- Part of essence, “elephant is an animal”
- Real vs Fiction, “Dave is this, or Cinderella is beautiful”
- Time, “is, was, will be”
- Detontic, “old ladies are to be helped”
- Metaphysical, “Jesus is lamb of God”
- Gnomic (w/o guarantee of existence), “mermaids are....”
- If, is. “if students are brilliant....”
- Meric, “3 is 2+1, or 3 is 5, partially)
- Potentially, “I could be sitting
- Nothing is annoying
 Properties of Judgments - 2nd Act of Mind
- Follow on whole judgment, either T or F
- Follow on the role of a word in the judgment, supposition
of a term. EX: Fr. Wilder has stopped beating his wife.
- Follow on relation of 2 judgments w/ some subject and
predicate.
Property 2: SUPPOSTION: The acceptance of
a term in a judgement for something in reality to
which it is verified according to the exingencies
copulative. “Present King of France is bald =
false) See Next Slide. Squares of Opposition
below:

Property 1: TRUTH/FALSITY: the known conformity of

what is in the mind to what is outside of the mind.
ERROR: a non-conformity with what inside the mind to A Contrary
E
what is outside the mind.
Metaphysical Truth: A property of being as such.
Properties of being are: Undivided, Good, and True.

Subordiante

Subordiante
- Everything in conformity with itself. “it is what it is”
- Via Suarez: being as such is true because it's convenient to
the intellect y
or

C
ict

on
tra
Other versions: d
tra

di
KANT: Phenomena (all we know) appears in mind. Must n

ct
Co

or
conform to innate concepts in mind. Conformity of the

y
things to our ideas.
PRAGMATIC VIEW: kind of knowledge that enable you
act effectively. “Truth that works”. Lack of success I Sub-Contrary O
guarantees lack of truth, but not vice versa.
HEGEL: When what hat you are thinking about is
absolutely devoid of contradiction. Knowing only a part
means by definition contradiction.

Necessary Impossible
Property 3 Opposition: Two or more sentences with the same subject and
predicate but different according to the quality and quantity of the sentence:
A-Statement (“All Italians are intelligent”, universal affirmative)
E-statement (“No Italians are intelligent”, universal negative)
I-statement (“Some Italians are intelligent”, particular affirmative)
O-statement (“Some Italians are unintelligent”, particular negative)
The relation:
A to E: (Contrary)The cannot both be true, but they can both be false
A to O: (Contradictory)They cannot share truth or falsity
E to I: (Contradictory)
A to I: (Subalternation) If A is true, I has to be, if I is false, A has to be, if I is
true, A does not have to be
E to O. (Subalternation) Possible Contingent
I to O: (Subcontraries) Can both be true but they cannot both be false
 Material
“man” is 3 letters
Suppostion Improper
metaphor

Formal Simple
man is a species
Singular
Proper “this man fights”
Complete
Distributive
Personal (real) in every
“men in Iraq” Incomplete
Noah's Arc
Material: “Lion has four letters” refers to the word itself, so it is a material supposition, Collective
also “Hallelujah is Hebrew” Common apostles = 12
Formal:
Improper: Metaphors (“Christ is the lion of Juda.”) “Lion” has an improper reference
to Disjunctive
Particular
the jungle animal. It has supposition, but only in the metaphorical sense. Peter
Proper:
Simple: When you refer to the concept, to that which exists in the mind, in so far as it Disjoined
exists in the mind as in the sentence (“Man is a universal”, “Man is a species”). The
words “species” and “man” refer not to the thing in reality, but only to as it exists in
the Ampliation: The disciples of John came to Christ and asked if he was the messiah:
mind Answer: “Tell John, the blind see, lame walk…” But the blind do not see, that is why
Real (sometimes: personal): When you refer to something outside of the mind, your they are blind. But the Lord was using ampliation. That is, that the term “blind”, when
supposition is real (personal): “The cat is eating the rat.” There is some furry animal ampliated, means not only people of the present but people of the past as well, so
eating another furry animal outside of the mind, real. blind refers to somebody who is presently seeing, but was not seeing in the past. The
Singular: “My dog is trustworthy” term has been ampliated beyond what would be normal truth in present tense.
Universal: The things you are referring to are all the things the meaning applies to. Restriction: “All of the students in this class, who are brilliant, are going to get a ten
for the course.” If “who are brilliant” is used in an unrestrictive sense, it means
“All cats are untrustworthy.” Here “cats” refers to all those animals. everybody gets a ten. But in a restrictive sense only the ones who are brilliant are
Collective: “The apostles are twelve”. Has a reference supposition, but only to going to get tens.
the Alienation: A word to indicate what happens when a term is used metaphorically.
collective not each single one “The lion is pursuing its prey”. The supposition is alienated, when you take the lion to
Particular: “Some cats are Siamese” the sentence “Christ is the lion of Juda”.
Disjunctive: “Some elephant is passing by in the parade.” a definite elephant, Appellation: “That white man is black.” (according to his hair). Calling a white man
not black, is an appellation to the term white. Appellation means the predication of what
any, some individual. is formal in one term to what is formal in another term. Theology: “God died on the
Disjoined: “Somebody is sick, some doctor is needed.” The supposition of cross.” “Died” insofar as it refers to God merely in an appellative way, because God
some as God can’t die, but because God was incarnate in man, who can die, it is true to say
doctor is not this or that but any doctor there is. “God died on the cross for our sins”. Trinity: “In God there are three omnipotents but
Distributive: “All cats are untrustworthy” because it refers to every last single not three onmipotencies” Because there are three persons, there are three
individual cat omnipotents, but only one nature of which omnipotency is a part, so not three
Complete: “All dogs are nice” omnipotencies.
Incomplete: “Noah gathered all of the animals of the world in his ark.”, “all
of
the animals” is distributive universal, but incomplete, because he did not
collect
all individual animals, but only all species.
Rules of Judgments - 2nd Act of Mind - PRACTICAL
- according to evidence of existence
- subject and predicate with or without each other
- consider evidence of the connection
- what is evident
- presently evident
- evidently remembered
- Discern between what's evident and evidently credible
- Mediately evident and immediately evident
- what is evidently certain and probably

*there are all sorts of things we can be justifiably certain

about without it being evident.

Equipolence: Start with a given sentence and say the same thing but using other terms.. Rules for saying things equipolently according to the “square of
opposition”:
Prae-contradictory: You add a negative to the contradiction. A to O: All Italians are intelligent” = “It is not the case that some Italians are not
intelligent”.
Post-contrary: You add a negative after the subject of the contrary. “All Angelicum students are brilliant” = “No angelicum student is not brilliant”;
Prae-Post-subalternate: A to I: “All enchiladas are tasty.” = “It is not the case that some enchiladas are not tasty.”;

Conversion: Switch place of subject and predicate. Ex: “No student in this class is having a nervous breakdown.” = “No one having a nervous
breakdown is a student in this class”.
fEcI: (Simple Conversion) E or I statement: only switch subject and predicate:
“Some/no students are a pain in the neck.” - “Some/no pains in the neck are students.” .
EvA: (Per Accidents) Conversion of an A-statement:
“All Italians are spaghetti-lovers.”: Change the quantity of the subject: “Some spaghetti-lovers are Italian.”
AstO: (Contraposition) By adding a negative element to the subject and the predicate:
“Some Italians are not catholics.” = “Some non-catholics are not non-Italians”

Obversion: A, E, I and O are not relevant here. All you have to do is retain the truth of an original statement. To have another statement you just change
the form of the original. If the original was affirmative you change the derived to a negative and vice versa, and you add a “non” to the predicate:
“All Romans are Italians.” = Change the form to negative: “No Roman…” add a non to the predicate “…is non-Italian.”

Partial Contrapositon : Taking an original judgment, obvert it and convert the result:
“All Muslims are Theists” = “No Muslim is a non theist”, convert: “No non-theist is a Muslim.”

Total Contraposition: Obvert, convert, obvert:

“All Angelicum students are tired.” “No Angelicum student is non-tired.” “No non-tired thing is an Angelicum student.” “All non-tired things are non
Angelicum-students.”
 Necessary Impossible
That Peter is X is necessary (A) PU – Possibility IL – Possibility
dictum – aff PU – Contingent LI – Contingent
RE – Impossible A – Impossible
mode – aff A - Necessity CE - Necessity
That Peter is not X is necessary (E)
dictum – neg
mode – aff
That Peter is X is not necessary (I)
dictum – aff
mode – neg A– Possibility E – Possibility
That Peter is not X is not necessary (U) MA – Contingent DEN – Contingent
dictum – neg DI – Impossible TO – Impossible
MAS - LI - Necessity
mode – neg
Necessity
Possible Contingent

1 2
1. That every man be a meta is necessary
2. That every man be a meta is impossible
3. That some men not be a meta is possible 6
4. That some men be a meta is possible 5
5. That some men be a meta is necessary
6. That some men be a meta is impossible
7. That every man not be a meta is possible 8 7
8. That every man not be a meta is possible

4 3