2.D.

2 Homeostatic Mechanisms

Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both

common ancestry and divergence due
to adaptation in different environments.
Continuity of homeostatic mechanisms
reflects common ancestry.
 Differences in homeostatic
mechanisms may occur in response to
different environmental conditions.
 Organisms have various mechanisms for
obtaining nutrients and eliminating wastes.
Example: Gas exchange in aquatic and
terrestrial plants
Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across a
moist cell membrane. In terrestrial plants
the requirements of water conservation
conflict with those of gas exchange.
 Submerged aquatic plants can exchange
gas by direct diffusion with the surrounding
water. They typically have very thin leaves
with a thin cuticle.
Terrestrial plants are covered by a thick
waxy cuticle to prevent water loss and
exchange gases through openings called
stomata.
Example: Digestive mechanisms in animals
 Protists can take in food through
phagocytosis. The food is stored in a food
vacuole, which merges with a lysosome
containing digestive enzymes.
 In one-way digestive systems, there are
two openings into the alimentary canal: a
mouth and an anus.
In two-way digestive systems, only one
opening serves as both mouth and anus.
Animals in the phylum cnidaria (jellyfish, corals,
and sea anemones) have gastrovascular
cavities, which have one opening that takes in
nutrients and exchanges gases with the
environment.
Planarians also have a gastrovascular
cavity.
Example: Respiratory systems of
aquatic and terrestrial animals
 Animals require large, moist respiratory
surfaces for the adequate diffusion of
respiratory gases between their cells and
the respiratory medium, either air or water.
 Gills are outfoldings of the body
surface specialized for gas exchange.
 Gills

Coelom

Tube foot

In some invertebrates the gills have a simple

shape and are distributed over much of the
body.
Many segmented worms have flaplike gills
that extend from each segment of their
body.
 Gills

Gills

The gills of clams, crayfish, and many other animals

are restricted to a local body region.
 The effectiveness of gas exchange in some gills,
including those of fishes is increased by ventilation
and countercurrent flow of blood and water.
 In countercurrent exchange, there is a
crossover of some property, usually heat or
gas, between flowing bodies flowing in
opposite directions.
Examples of countercurrent exchange:
• Gills, to transfer oxygen from water into blood
• Appendages, to maintain core temperature
• Mammalian kidneys, to remove water from
blood
The Loop of Henle,
part of the
nephron of the
kidney, sets up a
countercurrent
exchange that
allows water to be
reabsorbed from
the collecting
duct.
 Air sacs

Tracheae

Spiracle

The tracheal system of insects consists

of tiny branching tubes that penetrate
the body. Air enters through openings
called spiracles and passes into smaller
tubes called tracheoles.
Spiders, land snails, and most terrestrial
vertebrates have internal lungs.
 Branch Branch
from the from the
pulmonary pulmonary
vein artery
(oxygen-rich (oxygen-poor
blood) blood)
Terminal
bronchiole
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Left
Larynx lung Alveoli

50 µm
Esophagus
Trachea

Right lung

50 µm
Bronchus

Bronchiole

Diaphragm
Heart SEM Colorized SEM

In mammalian respiratory systems, a

system of branching ducts
conveys air to the lungs.
In mammals, air inhaled through the nostrils
passes through the pharynx into the trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and dead-end alveoli,
where gas exchange occurs.
Breathing ventilates the lungs the process that
ventilates the lungs is breathing. Breathing is the
alternate inhalation and exhalation of air.
 How an Amphibian Breathes
• An amphibian such as a frog ventilates its lungs
by positive pressure breathing, which forces air
down the trachea.
 How a Mammal Breathes
• Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure
breathing, which pulls air into the lungs.

Rib cage
expands as Rib cage gets
rib muscles Air inhaled smaller as Air exhaled
contract rib muscles
relax

Lung

Diaphragm

INHALATION EXHALATION
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
(moves down) (moves up)
 How a Bird Breathes
• Besides lungs, birdS have eight or nine air sacs
that function as bellows that keep air flowing
through the lungs.

Air Air
Anterior
air sacs

Trachea

Lungs
Posterior Lungs
air sacs

Air tubes
(parabronchi)
1 mm
in lung

INHALATION EXHALATION
Air sacs fill Air sacs empty; lungs fill
 Example: Nitrogenous waste
production and elimination in aquatic
and terrestrial animals
Homeostatic control systems in species of
microbes, plants and animals support
common ancestry.
Example: The excretory system serves to
regulate water balance (osmoregulation)
and remove wastes from the blood.
 The excretory systems of flatworms consist of
protonephridia along the back. These are branching
canals ending in flame cells, hollow cells with bundles
of constantly moving cilia.
 In earthworms, excretion occurs through
metanephridia. Aquatic oligochaetes
excrete ammonia; terrestrial oligochaetes
excrete the much less toxic urea.
The kidney is the main organ of excretion
in vertebrates. The functional unit of the
kidney is the nephron.
Example: Aquatic plants use diffusion for
osmoregulation; their leaves are rarely
more than two cells thick.
 Terrestrial plants maintain water
balance by opening and closing their
stomata to control the rate of
evapotranpiration.
 Learning Objectives:
LO 2.25 The student can construct explanations based on
scientific evidence that homeostatic mechanisms reflect
continuity due to common ancestry and/or divergence due
to adaptation in different environments. [See SP 6.2]
LO 2.26 The student is able to analyze data to identify
phylogenetic patterns or relationships, showing that
homeostatic mechanisms reflect both continuity due to
common ancestry and change due to evolution in different
environments. [See SP 5.1]
LO 2.27 The student is able to connect differences in the
environment with the evolution of homeostatic
mechanisms. [See SP 7.1]