Waves f = c/ λ

Frequency = number
of waves per second
Period (T) = time for
one oscillation
F = 1/T

(plane)
 Young’s double slit experiment
Where two peaks meet,
CONSTRUCTIVE interference
happens and bright light is seen
(a maximum)
Source must be
COHERENT
(waves have a constant
phase relationship)

Slits of similar size to

wavelength give
maximum diffraction
(diffraction grating) Where a peak meets a trough,
DESTRUCTIVE interference
occurs and a minimum (dark
fringe) is seen
If the path difference is a whole number of wavelengths, constructive interference will
occur as the waves will be back in phase when they meet.
If it is an odd number of half wavelengths, destructive interference will occur as the waves
are out of phase.
fringe separation, w = λ D
s
Stationary waves

Stationary waves are formed at the

fundamental frequency f0 and 2f0 (the first
overtone), 3f0 (the second overtone), etc.

λ0 = 2L

λ1 = L

λ2 = (2/3) L
 Refraction and reflection
Total internal reflection
The CRITICAL
ANGLE is the angle of If the incident ray is
incidence for which incident at an angle
the angle of greater than the
refraction is 90°. critical angle the light
will totally internally
reflect.

sin 𝑖
Snell’s law states that sin 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

This constant is a property of the

material, called its REFRACTIVE
INDEX

𝑣1
This relationship also holds for velocity; = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑣2

Used to check the quality of liquids by determining their refractive index and comparing to
known values.
 “work done on each
“Rate of flow of unit of charge”
charge” V = W/Q
Calculated using
the equation “rate of doing work”
I = ΔQ /Δt P = W/t

From these relationships we derive many

other equations such as
P = VI, W = VIt, P = I2R and P = V2/R
These equations are all given in the exam!

Don’t forget to use proportionality, squared relationships etc in answers.

 Law of Conservation of Charge
Current ‘flows’ through
components.

If there is a junction, the

current (I) will divide (not
normally equally) into I1 and I2.

It then combines back at the

next junction.

If there is no
junction, the
current remain
the same
through all
components.
How potential difference is distributed

Voltage for
components in parallel
is always THE SAME
 Current convention and relationships

Grad = Δy/Δx
= V/I = R

Ohm’s law applies to an object with constant resistance.

The gradient of a pd vs I graph is the resistance – look carefully at

the axes in your exam, if inverted then gradient is 1/resistance.

Here, a resistor or wire has constant resistance and therefore

follow Ohm’s law R = V / I
A bulb’s resistance varies
(due to temperature). This
can be seen by the varying
gradient.

A thermistor has high resistance

when at low temperature and low
resistance and high temperature.

In the ‘right’ direction,

A diode can only conduct a small increase in
electricity in one direction. voltage leads to a big
increase in current.
 Resistivity & potential dividers
Equation: R = ρl/A
Meaning: resistivity is a natural property of a material to resist current,
e.g. wood is much more resistant to flow than copper.
For a material to conduct, electrons
must be free to move along it.
Hence: longer wires, higher
resistance and thicker wires, less
resistance.

We use the fact that longer wires have more resistance

when constructing potential dividers.

A variable resistor will allow you to increase or decrease

the voltage.

Long wire = high resistance = high voltage ‘given’ to

secondary component.
Short wire = low resistance = low voltage ‘given’ to
secondary component.
EMF
Any device putting energy into a
circuit is providing an electo-
motive force (emf)
Any device taking it out has a
potential difference (pd) across
it.

Because a battery has its own

resistance, called internal
resistance, the voltage available
to go into the circuit will be less
than the ‘advertised’ amount.

V = E - Ir
 Conducting (Free) Electrons

Heating a wire causes the ionic ‘lattice’ to vibrate, impeding the flow of electrons.
This then causes the resistance of hot wires to increase.

From the idea of free electrons, we get the equation I = nqvA which helps us to
explain the large range of resistivities of different materials.

This tells us that current depends on n (number of charge carriers), q (charge on

carriers e.g. large ions might have more), v (velocity of charge carriers) and area.
 Photoelectric effect
1) Photons of light hit a metal surface.

2) Electrons excited to higher energy state/level. If photon frequency is

past threshold frequency then electrons are emitted.
3) Emitted electrons have a maximum kinetic
energy relative to the photon energy minus
the Work Function.

Discovery

Investigation
Maximum kinetic energy of electrons

Main focus: e = hf
The maximum available
kinetic energy for the
emitted electron is
equal to the incident
photon’s energy minus
the Work function (the
energy required and lost
during emission).

We may use
electronvolts rather
than J to represent the
energy.
1eV = 1.6x10-19J
 Energy levels in atoms
Electrons occupy different energy
levels/’shells’

If excited but not emitted as

photoelectrons, they can ‘jump’ back
down to the GROUND STATE.

They emit energy as a photon of light.

The energy corresponds to the difference

between the shells.

The bigger the jump, the higher the

frequency of emitted light.

Biggest jump smallest jump

 Electrons passing through a diffraction grating give a pattern
of maxima and minima, like light.

But how can particles ‘interfere’?

Electrons appear to sometimes behave like waves, and

sometimes like particles.
Light is often modelled as a wave to help
us understand
diffraction/superposition/interference.

But in the photoelectric effect, a more

intense light releases MORE ELECTRONS,
not electrons with more energy as was
predicted.

And light of the ‘wrong frequency’ never

builds up enough to release an electron.

So it seems that light sometimes behaves

like a particle too.