Expectation from group members

• AFTER ALL the preliminary work has been completed, the detailed design
work can begin.
Chapter 11.
Utilizing Experience-Based Principles to
Confirm the Suitability of a Process Design

It is important to be able to apply knowledge

gained through experience to future problems

2
These short-cut methods are forms of heuristics that are
helpful to engineer
The four characteristics of any heuristic:
◦ 1. A heuristic does not guarantee a solution.
◦ 2. It may contradict other heuristics.
◦ 3. It can reduce the time to solve a problem.
◦ 4. Its acceptance depends on the immediate context instead of on an
absolute standard.

Despite the limitations of heuristics, they are nevertheless valuable

guides for the process engineers.

3
Heuristics vs short-cut methods
1. A heuristics is a statement concerning equipment sizes, operating
conditions, and equipment performance that reduces the need for
calculations.
2. A short-cut method replaces the need for extensive calculations in
order to evaluate equipment sizes, operating conditions, and
equipment performance.
“back-of-the-envelope calculations” or “rule of thumb”.

An experienced engineer retains a body of information, made up

largely of heuristics and short-cut calculation methods, which are
available to help solve new problems.

4
Presentation of tables of technical heuristics and
guidelines

More information regarding technical heuristics or ‘rule of

thumb’ for equipment design can be found in the following
two books:
(1) Walas, S. M., Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and
Design, Butterworths, Stoneham, MA, 1988.
(2) Baasel, William D. Preliminary chemical engineering plant
design / William D. Baasel. 2nd ed. 1990.

5
Example 11.2
Refer to the information given in Chap 1 for the toluene hydrodealkylation
process, namely Fig 1.7 and tables 1.5 and 1.7. Using the information provided
in the tables in this Chap, estimate the size of the equipment and other
operating parameters for the following V-102 unit.

7
The design criteria
1. It must perform its intended function, i.e. fulfill the design brief.

2. It must operate safely, minimizing the risks of explosion, fire and danger to
operating personnel.

3. It must be an economic design.

4. It should operate with minimum maintenance and repair, and with minimum
operating costs and utilities requirement.

5. It is usually required to operate ‘satisfactorily’ under conditions of both increased

and reduced capacity.

6. It must operate for the expected life of the plant.

7. It must be capable of construction and operation.

8. It must be ‘acceptable’ (?).

 Materials of Construction
Although many materials have greater corrosion resistance than iron and steel,
cost aspects favor the use of iron and steel. As a result, they are often used as
materials of construction when it is known that some corrosion will occur.
The materials of construction are usually dictated by the chemicals present, the
operating conditions, and the end use of the products.

Metal Nonmetal

Comparison of purchased cost for metal plate Material Ratio =

cost per pound for metal / cost per pound for steel
Flange quality steel? 1
304 stainless-steel-clad steel 5
316 stainless-steel-clad steel 6
Aluminium (99 plus) 6
304 stainless steel 7
Copper (99.9 plus) 7
Nickel-clad steel 8
Monel-clad steel 8
Inconel-clad steel 9
316 stainless steel 10
Monel 10
Nickel 12
Inconel 13
Hastelloy C 15

purchased cost for steel plate (January, 1990) can be approximated as 36 to 70 cents per
pound, depending on the amount purchased.

12
 Material Properties
The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of
construction are:
1. Mechanical properties
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical
resistance, magnetic properties
5. Ease of fabrication-forming, welding, casting
6. Availability in standard sizes-plates, sections, tubes
7. Cost

13
List of Equipment
1. Piping System
2. Pump selection
3. Storage Tank and Vessels
4. Heat Exchangers
5. Towers
6. Reactors
Piping System
Krik othmer
pumps–valves–piping system is modeled as a network

(1) Large pipe to reduce pumping costs.

(2) Small pipe to reduce materials and construction costs.
If the motive power to drive the fluid through the pipe is available free, for instance when
pressure is let down from one vessel to another or if there is sufficient head for gravity flow,
the smallest pipe diameter that gives the required flow-rate would normally be used.
If the fluid has to be pumped through the pipe, the size should be selected to give the least
annual operating cost.
Fluid velocities
utilities liquids 5 ft/sec
process liquids 5 to 10 ft/sec
boiler feedwater 10 to 15 ft/sec
boiler saturated steam 200 ft/sec
boiler superheated steam 200 to 300 ft/sec
The maximum velocity should be kept below that at which erosion is likely to occur.
For gases and vapours the velocity cannot exceed the critical velocity (sonic velocity)
and would normally be limited to 30 per cent of the critical velocity,
 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Coulson and Richardson page 214

Pipe is a tube with round cross section conforming to the

dimensional requirements of
1. ASME B36.10M Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
2. ASME B36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe
Nominal Diameter (DN). A dimensionless designator of pipe in metric
system. It indicates standard pipe size when followed by the specific size
designation number without the millimeter symbol (for example, DN 40, DN
300).

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS). A dimensionless designator of pipe. It indicates

standard pipe size when followed by the specific size designation
number without an inch symbol (for example, NPS 1 1/2, NPS 12).

Nominal Thickness. The thickness given in the product material specification

or standard to which manufacturing tolerances are applied
Pipe Materials
There are hundreds of pipe materials, which belong to two broad categories: metallic
and nonmetallic.
Metallic, ferrous
Cast iron
Steel (carbon steel)
Alloy steel
Metallic, nonferrous
Copper and alloys
Aluminium and alloys
Nickel and alloys
Titanium and alloys

Nonmetallic
Plastics (PVC, CPVC, Polyethylene, etc, Fig. 8)
Concrete
Fiberglass and fiber-reinforced plastics
Glass
Metallic lined with non-metals
 Pressure Design
The first step in detailed design is the selection of the right pressure rating for pipes, fittings
(bends, tees, reducer, etc.), and components (valves, flow elements, etc). First, the pipe wall
thickness is selected on the basis of the design code. In the U.S. the common design code for
industrial applications is the ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code which is subdivided in to
separate books by industry and application, these are :
ASME B31.1 Power Piping: power plant piping systems.
ASME B31.3 Process Piping: hydrocarbons and others. Hydrocarbons includes refining and petrochemicals.
Others includes chemical process, making of chemical products, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, dye and
colorings, food processing, laboratories, offshore platform separation of oil and gas, etc.
ASME B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping: upstream liquid gathering lines and tank farms, downstream
transport and distribution of hazardous liquids (refined products, liquid fuels, carbon dioxide).
ASME B31.5 Refrigeration Piping: heating ventilation an air conditioning in industrial applications.
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping: upstream gathering lines, onshore and offshore,
downstream transport pipelines and distribution piping.
ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping: low pressure steam and water distribution.
ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping: mining, slurries, suspended solids transport, etc.
 Wall thickness: pipe schedule
The pipe wall thickness is selected to resist the internal pressure, with an
allowance for corrosion. Processes pipes can normally be considered as thin
cylinders; only high pressure pipes, such as high-pressure steam lines, are
likely to be classified as thick cylinders and must be given special
consideration.
Schedule 40 pipe is commonly used for general purposes.

Schedule is expressed in numbers (5, 5S, 10, 10S, 20, 20S, 30, 40, 40S, 60,
80, 80S, 100, 120, 140, 160). A schedule number indicates the
approximate value of the expression 1000 P/S, where P is the service
pressure and S is the allowable stress, both expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi). The higher the schedule number, the thicker the pipe is. The
outside diameter of each pipe size is standardized. Therefore, a
particular nominal pipe size will have a different inside diameter depending
upon the schedule number specified
The schedule numbers followed by the letter S are per ASME B36.19M,
and they are primarily intended for use with stainless steel pipe.
Pipe fittings
Pipe runs are normally made up from lengths of pipe, incorporating
standard fittings for joints, bends and tees.
Joints are usually welded but small sizes may be screwed.
Flanged joints are used where this is a more convenient method of
assembly, or if the joint will have to be frequently broken for
maintenance. Flanged joints are normally used for the final connection
to the process equipment, valves and ancillary equipment.
Details of the standard pipe fittings, welded, screwed and flanged, can
be found in manufacturer’s catalogues and in the appropriate national
standards.
Pipe hangers
Pump selection
Coulson and Richardon page 198
Pumps can be classified into two general types:
1. Dynamic pumps, such as centrifugal pumps.
2. Positive displacement pumps, such as reciprocating and diaphragm pumps
Heat-transfer Equipment
The principal types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and
allied industries, are listed below:
1. Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating,
2. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications.
3. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and cooling.
4. Plate-fin exchangers.
5. Spiral heat exchangers.
6. Air cooled: coolers and condensers.
7. Direct contact: cooling and quenching.
8. Agitated vessels.
9. Fired heaters
Tubes

The recommended tube pitch (distance

between tube centres) is 1.25 times the
tube outside diameter; and this will
normally be used unless process
requirements dictate otherwise. Where
a square pattern is used for ease of
cleaning, the recommended minimum
clearance between the tubes is 0.25 in.
(6.4 mm),
 Shells

The British standard BS 3274 covers exchangers from 6 in. (150 mm) to 42 in.
(1067 mm) diameter; and the TEMA standards, exchangers up to 60 in, (1520
mm). Up to about 24 in. (610 mm) shells are normally constructed from standard,
close tolerance, pipe; above 24 in. (610 mm) they are rolled from plate.
For pressure applications the shell thickness would be sized according to the
pressure vessel design standards. The minimum allowable shell thickness is
given in BS 3274 and the TEMA standards. The values, converted to SI units, are
given below:
Vessels
Vessels in chemical processing service are of two kinds: those
substantially without internals and those with internals.
1st: drums or tanks, are intermediate storage or surge of a process
stream for a limited or extended period or to provide a phase
separation by settling.
2nd: the shells of equipment such as heat exchangers, reactors, mixers,
fractionators, and other equipment whose housing can be designed and
constructed largely independently of whatever internals are necessary.
MECHANICAL DESIGN
Mixing in a tank
The geometric parameters for a standard
geometry tank shown in Figure 19 are
defined as follows:
Z = T,
D = T/3,
B = T/12 to T/10,
w = D/8 to D/5.
Classification of pressure
vessels

For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels are sub-
divided into two classes depending on the ratio of the wall thickness to
vessel diameter:
• thin-walled vessels, with a thickness ratio of less than I : 10; and
• thick-walled above this ratio.
 Atmospheric Tanks

The term atmospheric tank as used here applies to any tank that is
designed to be used within plus or minus several hundred pascals (a few
pounds per square foot) of atmospheric pressure. It may be either open
to the atmosphere or enclosed.

Minimum cost is usually obtained with a vertical cylindrical shape and a

relatively flat bottom at ground level.
Tank Bottom
In the fabrication of large steel structures, the minimum thickness is often governed by the
minimum necessary for weldability and fabricability and not necessarily by strength
requirements. A good example is the thickness requirements specified by the tank design
codes for flat-bottom tanks: typically 0.25 in. (6 mm). The design codes treat the bottom as
simply a spillproof membrane without any particular requirement for stresses. However,
after settlement occurs, significant stresses may develop.

Tank Shell
Another example of where thickness is set by minimums for fabricability but not for strength is
in small diameter tanks. For example, a water storage tank built using a steel of an allowable
stress of 20,000 psi (138 mPa), 9 ft (3 m) in diameter by 21-ft (7-m) high, requires a shell
thickness to resist hoop stress of only 0.023-in. (0.58-mm) thick. However, if built to API
Standard 650, the shell would be fabricated at least 0.1875-in. (4.76-mm) thick. The code
requires this thickness so that when fabrication, welding, and tolerances are considered, a
tank of acceptable quality and appearance meeting the requirements of most services in most
locations is provided. In the large-diameter vertical cylindrical tanks, because hoop stress is
proportional to diameter, the thickness is set by the hydrostatic hoop stresses.

Tank Roof
The minimum fabrication thickness of roof plates is 3/16 in. (4.8 mm).
 Open Tanks
These may be used to store materials that will not be harmed by water,
weather, or atmospheric pollution. Otherwise, a roof, either fixed or floating,
is required.

Fixed roofs are usually either domed or coned. Large tanks have coned
roofs with intermediate supports. Since negligible pressure is involved, snow
and wind are the principal design loads. Local building codes often give
required values.

Fixed-roof atmospheric tanks require vents to prevent pressure

changes which would otherwise result from temperature changes and
withdrawal or addition of liquid.

Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks, gives practical rules
for vent design. The principles of this standard can be applied to fluids other
than petroleum products. Excessive losses of volatile liquids, particularly
those with flash points below 38°C (100°F), may result from the use of open
vents on fixed-roof tanks. Sometimes vents are manifolded and led to a vent
tank, or the vapor may be extracted by a recovery system.
Floating Roofs
These must have a seal between the roof and the tank shell. If not
protected by a fixed roof, they must have drains for the removal of
water, and the tank shell must have a “wind girder” to avoid distortion.

An industry has developed to retrofit existing tanks with floating roofs.