What is Chemistry?

Copyright © 2012 College of Professional Studies Northeastern University Boston, MA 02115

Objectives
• Generate a comprehensive definition of Chemistry
• Distinguish between mass and weight
• Illustrate the density concept
• Define energy and units of energy
• Distinguish between pure substances and mixtures
• Explain the role of atoms and molecules for pure
substances
• Delineate difference between the two mixture types
– Homogeneous
– Heterogeneous
Objectives
• Distinguish between chemical and physical change
• Survey different physical changes
• Provide list of observations consistent that a chemical
reaction has transpired
Initial Perceptions of Chemistry
• What comes to mind when you hear Chemistry?
What is Chemistry?
• Chemistry is the science that studies
– Matter
– Energy
– Changes accompanying chemical & physical change
• Matter refers to
– The “stuff” of which the universe is comprised
– Any entity with both mass and volume
• Energy is the ability to do work
• Let’s evaluate these definitions more closely. . .
Mass & Weight Are Not the Same
• Definition for mass is surprisingly
simple
• Mass measures quantity or
amount of matter
• In chemistry, mass is measured
via a laboratory instrument
called an analytical balance
• You will make regular use of
these in our laboratories at
Northeastern University 
Mass & Weight Are Not the Same

• A pure substance is distinguished by its unique composition

• A gram of one substance may appear distinctly different
from one gram of another substance
Mass & Weight Are Not the Same
• Weight, on the other hand, refers to earth’s gravitational
force on an object
• According to Newton’s Second Law of motion, we define
force as:
Force = (mass)(acceleration)

• Force has units of kg m/s2 (Newtons) because

– Mass is measured in kg
– Acceleration is measured in m/s2
Mass & Weight Are Not the Same
• Mathematically, we can define weight via the same
relationship
W = mg

• Here, m also represents mass in kilograms

• “g” represents acceleration due to gravity
• Acceleration due to gravity is the constant 9.8 m/s2
• Please note this will also have units of Newtons
• Pounds (lb) are most commonly used as weight units
Speaking Volumes…
• Volume (V) measures the space an object occupies.
• Formulae allow volume determination of regular
objects

Sphere Cube Cone

3
Speaking Volumes…
• Volume of irregular objects can be determined by displacement
– Initial volume is recorded
– Object is added to the water
– Volume is determined by subtraction
Before After

Strange
Object V2
V Strange Object
New
V1 Water level
Water level

V Strange Object = V2 – V1
Density

• You may have heard that cities have a high population density
• It is determined by the number of individuals per square mile
• Density can be viewed in a similar fashion regarding matter
• Density refers to the amount of matter per unit volume
 Density
• Density is the mass of matter present divided by the volume it
occupies
m
d
V

• Density typically has units of

– g/mL or g/cm3 for liquids and solids
– Gas density is often reported in g/L

• Density is assigned either the symbol d or Greek-letter rho (ρ)

Density
• Consider the cheesecake scenario below
• Which cheesecake makes a richer dessert?
– Cheesecake from a fine bakery
– Cheesecake from a boxed mix (Yuck!)
• One cheesecake contains more matter per unit volume than the
other. Bakery cheesecake is more dense

Fine
Bakery Boxed Mix

Cheesecake

Air pocket
Density and Temperature
• It is important to note the density of a substance varies with
temperature
• Both solids and liquids tend to expand on heating
• This results in the same mass occupying a greater volume
• Hence, density tends to decrease with increasing temperature
• Below is the relationship between water’s density and temperature
Calculations with Density
•Rearranging the density formula enables calculation of. . .

•Mass
m  Vd
•Volume m
V 
d
•Given any two of the three variables, the third can be determined
•The next slide features an application of this formula
Calculations with Density
Example: An unknown liquid has a density of 0.871 g/mL at 25oC.
What is the mass of 13.5 mL of this liquid at 25oC?

𝑚
Rearrange d= 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑉
Write rearranged form: m = dV

Plug in values

Cancel units

Report answer with remaining units

Calculations with Density
Example: An unknown liquid has a density of 0.871 g/mL at 25oC.
What is the mass of 13.5 mL of this liquid at 25oC?

m  (13.5mL)(0.871g / mL)
m  11.8 g
Categories of Matter
• Matter is comprised of two subcategories:
– Pure substances
– Mixtures
• A Pure Substance is a material with a fixed
composition
• A Mixture is. . .
– Group of two or more physically intermingled
substances
– Unlike pure substances, composition can vary.
Pure Substances
• The “Pure Substance” category can be divided into two
subcategories:
– Elements
– Compounds
• An element is a pure substance comprised of only one
type of atom
• For now, we will define the atom as
– A single, representative particle of an element
– A particle that both comprises and is unique to a
particular element
Pure Substances
• Single or double-letter symbols represent different elements

• Some representative element-symbol pairs include:

Oxygen, O Potassium, K Lead, Pb

Helium, He Sodium, Na Nitrogen, N
Arsenic, As Antimony, Sb Mercury, Hg

• The Periodic Table of the Elements provides an organizational

strategies for all known elements

• We will discuss this table on the next slide. . .

The Periodic Table of the Elements
• Comprised of
– Vertical columns called Groups or Families
Groups
– Horizontal rows called Periods

Periods
Molecules
• A molecule is
– An independent structural unit
– Comprised of one or more atoms structurally bound together
• Examples of molecules include
– Helium: He
– Oxygen: O2
– Ozone: O3
– Methane (natural gas): CH4
– Glucose: C6H12O6
– Sucrose (table sugar): C12H22O11
– Vitamin B12 (shown right)
Compounds
• A Compound is
– A pure substance
– Comprised of two or more different elements
– Elements are bound together in a fixed numerical ratio.
• Compounds result from chemical reactions
• A chemical reaction converts
– One or more starting materials
– Into one or more products
– Products have different physical and chemical properties
Compound Formation
Compounds are Produced from Chemical Reactions

• Two Examples:
– Formation of table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl)
Na + Cl2  2 NaCl
Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride

– Metabolism of glucose by cellular respiration

C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water
Mixtures
Compounds are Produced from Chemical Reactions

• Mixtures are characterized by

– One or more different substances
– Substances that are physically intermingled
– Variable composition
• Let’s explore mixtures in a familiar context. . .
Mixtures
• How do you take your coffee?
• Let’s consider the (endless) possibilities…
Black?

Cream &
Just Sugar?
Cream?
Black & 2
sugars?
Extra
Cream? Non-fat
Cream low-foam
&2 latte?
Cream
sugars?
&6 Cream & a shot
sugars? of hazel nut ?
Mixtures
• Mixtures come in two varieties:
– Homogeneous mixtures contain
• Components which are uniformly intermingled.
• Solutions are an example.
– Heterogeneous mixtures contain
• Components which are not uniformly mixed.
• Examples include vegetable soup, salad dressing, concrete.
Homogeneous Mixtures
Heterogeneous Mixtures
Introduction to Energy
• Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

• Work (W) is achieved when a force (F) is applied on an

object over a measured distance (d)

• Recall that force . . .

• Is calculated by F = ma
• Has units of kg m/s2 (or Newtons)
Introduction to Energy
• Work. . .
• Is the product of force and distance
• Is calculated by

W = Fd

• Has units of kg m2/s2

• This can be re-written as a Newton-meter (N ● m)
• A Newton-meter is also known as a Joule
Introduction to Energy
An object moves 25 m along a straight line while
subjected to a constant force of 4 N. What work was
performed on the object?
Write the equation F = ma
Enter values with units
Write answer with correct units

W = (4 N)(25 m) = 100 N m or 100 J ans.

Units of Energy
• Here are some energy units frequently encountered by
Chemistry students
– 1 N*m = 1 kg m2/s2 or 1 Joule (J)
– 1 kJ = 1000 J
– 1 calorie = 4.184 J
– 1 kcal = 1000 cal
• Energy can assume several forms in nature
• The most commonly encountered forms are:
– Thermal
– Light (Luminous)
– Electrical
– Nuclear
Measuring Energy
• How hot or cold a substance is a relative thermal-
energy measurement
• Heat is the energy that flows from a hot
substance to a cold substance
• Temperature (T) measures how hot or cold a
substance is.
• Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
Temperature Scales
• Temperature is expressed in a variety of units
• Common temperature units include:
– Celsius, oC
– Kelvin, K… no (o)!!
– Farenheit, oF
• The Kelvin scale is used because it contains no negative
temperature values
• Positive temperature values are helpful when performing
calculations
• Because the lowest measurable temperature value on the Kelvin
scale is zero, this value is often called absolute zero
• Accordingly, the Kelvin scale is sometimes called the absolute
scale
Temperature Conversion
• Converting temperature values between the different scales is easy

• Please find the formulae for temperature conversion below…

( 𝑜𝐶 𝑥 9)
– To convert oC to oF: oF= + 32
5

5( 𝑜𝐹 −32)
– To convert oF to oC: oC =
9

– To convert oC to K: TK = TC + 273.15

– To convert K to oC: TC = TK – 273.15

Temperature Conversion
•Fats and oils can be heated to extremely high
temperatures but begin to degrade at a
temperature of 190oC (the smoking point).
Calculate the temperature in oF and K

Select the appropriate equation (s)

Plug in known values
Solve and provide answer with appropriate units

To Determine Fahrenheit Temperature To Determine Kelvin Temperature

oF= (190 ∗9) + 32
5 TK = 190 + 273.15
oF = 374 oF TK = 463.15 K
How Do We Describe Matter?
•Physical Properties: attributes which distinguish one substance from
another (i.e. density).
•Traditionally, these properties were assessed via the 5 senses

Gold Table Salt Lemon Juice

Appearance Shiny (luster) Transparent Yellow liquid

Malleability Malleable Brittle n/a
Taste n/a “salty” Sour
Electrical Conductive Conductive in Weakly
conductivity
Solution only conductive
Thermal Thermally No No
conductivity
Conductive
Chemical Properties
• Chemical Properties refer to behavior a
substance displays when its composition is
subject to change
• Examples of chemical properties include. . .
– Iron reacts with oxygen to form rust
– Calcium carbonate neutralizes stomach acid
– Sodium metal reacts violently with water
Phases of Matter
• Consider the “ice cube” in the picture below
• Solids do not
– Display fluid motion (they have fixed shape)
– Will not conform to the shape of its container.
• A solid
– Is comprised of molecules tightly packed together
– The most condensed phase of a material
Molecular Portrait of an Ice cube in an airtight container

= Single molecule
Phases of Matter
• Liquids will
– Conform to the shape of its container
– Container is filled only to extent of liquid’s own volume

• A 1 oz of milk in an 8 oz glass will not “swell” to fill entire glass.

I. The same ice cube melts II. Liquid water in a flask

into liquid water
Phases of Matter
• Gases
– Conform to the entire shape of their container
– Will fill the entire container
• The gaseous state contains the highest molecular randomness

I. The same ice cube II. Water vapor fills the flask
vaporizes
Matter & Change
• What kind of change was observed in the ice cube as we traced in
through all three phases of matter?
• Physical Change is
– A change where a substance alters its physical form or phase
– Composition is not altered in physical change
– Physical changes occur as temperature or pressure of a substance is altered.
• The ice cube illustrates physical change with temperature
• Chemical Change is
– Change where a substance changes into or interacts with a new substance
– Products of chemical change have different properties
Physical Change
• Melting or Fusion describes solid transforming into liquid
• The ice cube illustrated melting
• Equation H2O(s)  H2O(l) represents melting
• (s) and (l) refer to solid, liquid respectively

• Freezing describes liquid transforming into solid

• Liquid water converting to ice represents freezing
• Equation H2O(l)  H2O(s) represents freezing
Physical Change
• Vaporization is where liquid is transformed into a gas
• Sweat evaporating from skin is an example
• Equation H2O(l)  H2O(g) represents conversion from
– (l)iquid phase
– To (g)as phase
• Condensation: a gas is transformed into liquid
• Beads of water forming on soda can on humid day
• Equation H2O(g)  H2O(l) represents conversion from
– (g)as phase to
– (l)iquid phase
Physical Change
• Sublimation is where solid transforms directly into a gas
• Liquid phase is altogether skipped
• Sublimation of Dry Ice is represented by CO2 (s)  CO2 (g)
• Deposition is where vapor transforms directly into a solid
• Deposition of iodine is represented by I2 (g)  I2 (s)
• Diagram below illustrates this phenomenon

Sublimation
Solid I2 Gaseous
I2
Deposition
Chemical Change
• Chemical reactions have the generic form…
Reactant(s) Product(s)
• Chemical-reaction products differ from reactants in their
– Structure
– Physical/chemical properties
– Chemical formula
• How do we know a chemical reaction has occurred?
2 Na + Cl2  2 NaCl
Symbols for Chemical Change
Label Meaning Example

s Solid Ice: H2O(s)

l Liquid Water: H2O(l)

g Gas Steam: H2O(g)

aq Aqueous Table salt in water:

NaCl(aq )
(Dissolved in water)
Formation of a AgCl ↓
↓
Precipitate (solid)
Evolution of a gas CO2 ↑
↑
Recognizing Chemical Change
Temperature Change

•Temperature change is an observable indicator of chemical change

•Exothermic reactions release heat into the surroundings
•An example of such a reaction is:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + energy
•Endothermic reactions absorb heat from the surroundings
•In the system below, reaction container becomes palpably cold

Ba(OH)2∙8H2O(s) + 2 NH4NO3(s) + energy  Ba(NO3)2(s) + 2 NH3(g) + 10 H2O(l)

Recognizing Chemical Change
• Other signs of a reaction include:
– Evolution of a Gas

CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl(aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

– Formation of an insoluble solid

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)

• A precipitate is an insoluble solid formed by

two solutions
Recognizing Chemical Change
• Color change is another sign that a
reaction has occurred
• Consider the cranberry-red color
that results below:
Fe3+ (aq) + SCN-(aq)  [FeSCN]2+(aq)
(Red color) Before After
• This reaction combines two charged
particles together
– Fe3+ & SCN-
– New particle with novel properties
results
Summary
• Chemistry is the study of matter and energy
• Matter describes entities which
• Have mass
• Occupy space
• Matter can be divided into two major categories
• Pure substances
• Mixtures
• Pure substances possess constant composition
• Mixture composition can vary
• Energy is the ability to do work
• Heat refers to energy that flows from a hot to a cold substance
• Temperature provides a relative measurement of thermal energy
Summary
• Physical change describes transformation from one phase of
matter to another
• Chemical changes involve the transformation of a given material
into a new material with new properties
• Observations consistent with a chemical reaction include
• Temperature change
• Color change
• Precipitation
• Gas evolution
Please Proceed to Self-Quiz 1