 Cell Continuity and Chromosome

◦ Explanation of the terms “cell continuity” and

“chromosome”.

 Haploid, Diploid
◦ Definition of “haploid” and “diploid” number.

 The Cell Cycle

◦ Description of cell activities in the state of non-
division (interphase) and division (mitosis).
◦ Cancer – definition and two possible causes.
 Mitosis
◦ Definition of “mitosis”. Simple treatment with the
aid of diagrams (names of stages and of
chromosome parts are not required).

 Stages of Mitosis (Extended Study)

◦ Detailed study, with the aid of diagrams, of the
stages of mitosis.

 Meiosis
◦ Definition of “meiosis”.

 Functions of Meiosis
◦ Functions of “meiosis”.
 Cell Continuity  Interphase

 Chromosome  Mitosis

 Haploid Cell  Meiosis

 Diploid Cell  Cancer

 Homologous Pair  Metastasis

 Cell continuity means that all cells develop
from existing cells.

 When a new cell forms it goes through three

phases before it can divide again:
◦ It produces or synthesises all the materials it will
need.
◦ It grows larger.
◦ It reproduces to form new cells.
 Chromosomes are coiled threads
of DNA and protein that become
visible in the nucleus at cell
division.

 When a cell is not dividing the chromosomes

are in long thin threads called chromatin.

 At cell division the chromatin contracts to

form a number of clearly distinguishable
chromosomes.
 Every species has a definite number of
chromosomes in each cell e.g. humans have
46 chromosomes.

 Each chromosome has thousands of genes.

 A haploid cell has only one of each type of
chromosome in the nucleus.

 Haploid is symbolised by the letter ‘n’.

◦ The number of chromosomes in the cell is given as
n=2 or n=3 etc.

 In humans, eggs and sperm are haploid,

n=23.
 A diploid cell has two of each type of
chromosome in the nucleus.

 Diploid is symbolised as ‘2n’.

◦ The number of chromosomes in the cell is given as
2n=4 or 2n=6 etc.

 Each human cell is diploid (2n=46).

 The cell cycle describes the life cycle of a cell.

 This includes the changes that take place in

the cell when it:
◦ Is dividing.
◦ Is not dividing.
 Interphase is the phase in the cell cycle when
the cell is not dividing.
◦ This is the longest phase in the cell cycle.

 During this time the chromosomes are in

long thin threads called chromatin.

 Although the cells are not dividing they are

very active during interphase:
◦ Producing new organelles, e.g. mitochondria, and
chemicals needed for growth.
◦ Chromosomes produce identical copies of
themselves (becoming double stranded).
 The processes that occur during interphase
can be summarised as follows:
◦ DNA replication
◦ Organelle duplication
◦ Cell growth
◦ Transcription and translation
◦ Obtain nutrients
◦ Respiration

 Tip to remember these processes:

DOCTOR
 Mitosis is a form of nuclear division in which
one nucleus divides to form two nuclei, each
containing the same number of chromosomes
with identical genes.

 Mitosis has four stages.

 After mitosis is complete the cell divides to

form two identical daughter cells.
 At the end of interphase the chromosomes
contract and become visible.
 Each chromosome appears as a double
strand.
 Fibres appear in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane begins to break down.
 The double stranded chromosomes are held
together at a point called a centromere.
◦ Each of the strands is an identical chromosome i.e.
each one has the same genes.
 The fibres that appear in the cytoplasm of the
cell are called spindle fibres.
 The nucleolus also breaks down.
 The nuclear membrane completes its
breakdown.
 The chromosomes contract and thicken more.
 The fibres attach to the chromosomes.
◦ By the end of this stage each chromosomes has two
fibres attached, one from each side of the cell.
 The chromosomes line up across the centre
of the cell.
 A spindle fibre from each pole (or end) of the
cell attaches to each centromere.

 The chromosomes are lined up at the equator

of the cell.
 The fibres contract pulling the chromosomes
apart.
 Each strand of the chromosome is pulled to
opposite ends of the cell.
◦ As each strand is identical this means that identical
sets of genes are pulled to each end of the cell.
 When the spindle fibres contract the
centromeres split.

 The cell will have the same number of

chromosomes at each pole.

 Anaphase is the shortest phase in mitosis.

 A nuclear membrane forms around each of
the two sets of chromosomes.
 The chromosomes elongate within each
nucleus and become chromatin.
 Mitosis is complete.
 The spindle fibres that formed at the start of
mitosis break down.
 Nucleoli begin to re-form in each nucleus.
 The original nucleus has divided into two
identical nuclei.
 Mitosis is complete.

 Tip to remember the names of the stages:

Pour Me Another Tea
 Once mitosis is complete the original cell
divides to form two daughter cells.

 These cells will contains the same number of

identical chromosomes.

 Each cell will have approximately half of the

cell organelles that were in the parent cell.
Animal Cells
 Cell division in animal cells occurs by a
process called cleavage.
 A shallow groove called a cleavage furrow
appears around the equator of the cell.
 The cleavage furrow becomes deeper until
the cytoplasm is divided and the cell splits in
two.
Plant Cells
 In plant cells the rigid cell walls prevent a
cleavage furrow from forming.

 Instead a number of vesicles gather at the

equator.
◦ These vesicles contain cellulose that form cell walls.
Plant Cells
 The vesicles form a structure called a cell
plate.
◦ The cell plate enlarges and joins with the plasma
membrane of the original cell.

 Two cell walls form within the cell plate (one

for each daughter cell).
◦ The area between the two walls is called the middle
lamella.
Unicellular Organisms
 In single-celled (unicellular) organisms, such
as Amoeba, mitosis is used as a method of
reproduction.

 Reproduction that does not involve the

joining of two cells is called asexual
reproduction.
◦ Asexual reproduction involves only one parent.
Multicellular Organisms
 In many-celled (multicellular) organisms
mitosis produces new cells not new
individuals.

 In these organisms mitosis is responsible for

growth, renewal and repair of cells.
◦ When an organisms is fully grown mitosis is still
needed to repair damaged cells e.g. when skin is
cut in a human.
 Normally the rate of mitosis and cell division
is carefully controlled.
◦ Just enough new cells are formed to allow for
normal growth and repair.

 Sometimes a cell or group of cells lose the

ability to control the rate of mitosis and cell
division.

 These cells form a mass of cells called a

tumour.
 Cancer is a group of disorders in which
certain cells lose their ability to control both
the rate of mitosis and the number of times
mitosis takes place.
 Benign means ‘kind’.

 In a benign tumour cells stop dividing after

some time.
◦ Benign tumours are not life threatening.
◦ They do not invade other tissues.

 Benign tumours include warts and skin tags

(small blobs of raised skin).
 Cancer results in the uncontrolled
multiplication of abnormal cells which form a
malignant tumour.
◦ Malignant tumours, called ‘cancer’, may be life
threatening.
◦ They invade other cells and can move from one
place to another in the body. This is called
metastasis.
◦ Cancer cells divide indefinitely.
 Cancer is caused when normal genes are
altered to form cancer-causing genes.
 These alterations are brought about by
cancer causing agents called carcinogens.
 Some common carcinogens include:
◦ Cigarette Smoke.
◦ Asbestos Fibres.
◦ Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation.
 Most cancers can be cured using:
◦ Surgery.
◦ Radiation (to burn out the cancer).
◦ Chemotherapy (chemicals that slow down mitosis).
 Meiosis is a form of nuclear division in which
the four daughter nuclei contain half the
chromosome number of the parent nucleus.

 When meiosis takes place in a diploid cell, the

daughter cells will be haploid.

 If the cells are capable of joining with another

haploid cell from the opposite sex they are
called sex cells or gametes.
 Meiosis has two basic functions in
multicellular organisms:
◦ It allows for sexual reproduction without increasing
the number of chromosomes in the offspring.
◦ It allows for new combinations of genes to be
formed, which will give rise to variations amongst
organisms.
 Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
1. The number of
1. The number of
chromosomes in each
chromosomes in each
daughter cell is the same
daughter cell is half the
as the number of
number of chromosomes in
chromosomes in the parent
the parent cell.
cell.
2. The genes in each of the
2. The genes in each of the
daughter cells are
daughter cells are identical.
different.
3. One cell divides to form 3. One cell divides to form
two new cells. four new cells.