 Photosynthesis is the process of making food

(synthesis) using light energy (photo).

 The light energy is converted into chemical

energy in food.

 Photosynthesis is represented by the

balanced equation:
light
6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2
(water) (carbon chlorophyll (glucose) (oxygen)
dioxide)
 The main events in photosynthesis are as
follows:
◦ Light is absorbed.
◦ Water is split.
◦ The products of the splitting of water are protons
(H+), electrons (e-) and oxygen.
◦ Light energises electrons.
◦ Glucose is formed.
1. Light is Absorbed
 Some of the sunlight that strikes a plant is
absorbed by chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll is found in cell organelles called
chloroplasts.
 Photosynthesis takes place in the
chloroplasts.
 The sunlight provides the energy needed to
make glucose.
2. Water is Split
 Some of the trapped sunlight is used to split
water into protons (H+), electrons (e-) and
oxygen gas (O2).

 This is shown by the following equation:

light
2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2
3. Products of Splitting Water
 The protons, electrons and oxygen produced
when water is split act in the following way:
a. The electrons are passed into chlorophyll.
b. The protons are released into a storage pool of
protons in the chloroplast for later use.
c. The oxygen may pass out of the leaf into the
atmosphere or it may be used in respiration.
4. Light Energises Electrons
 Some of the sunlight trapped by chlorophyll
is passed on to the electrons that entered the
chlorophyll after the splitting of water.

 These electrons become high-energy

electrons.
5. Glucose is Formed
 The high energy electrons from the
chlorophyll combine with protons from the
proton pool and carbon dioxide to form a
carbohydrate (glucose C6H12O6).
 Sunlight is the normal source of light for
photosynthesis.

 Artificial light can be used in greenhouses to

stimulate crop growth.

 Increasing the amount of light can increase

growth up to a certain saturation point where
no more light can be absorbed.
 Plants have two sources of carbon dioxide:
◦ External
◦ Internal

External Carbon Dioxide

 Plants get most of the carbon dioxide needed
for photosynthesis from the environment.

Internal Carbon Dioxide

 Some of the carbon dioxide used in
photosynthesis is made by the plants in
respiration.
 Water is absorbed from the soil by the roots
of the plants.

 The water then passes up through the plant

stem and into the leaves.
Extended Study (Higher Level)
 Photosynthesis is a process that takes place
in two stages:
◦ The Light Stage (light-dependent stage).
◦ The Dark Stage (light-independent stage).

 The reactions in the light stage are

dependent on the energy provided by light.

 The dark stage reactions do not require light

energy but do need some products of the
light stage.
 The events of the light stage take place in the
chloroplast.

 The events of the light stage can be

explained under the headings:
1. Light Absorption.
2. Light Energy Transferred to Electrons.
3. Electron Pathway One.
4. Electron Pathway Two.
 Chloroplasts contain a range of pigments
including chlorophyll.

 Each of the pigments absorbs a different

colour of light.

 In general plants absorb all the colours of

white light except green.
◦ Green light is normally reflected by plants (this is
why they are green).
 Pigments are arranged in clusters in the
chloroplast.

 Each cluster consists of:

◦ A variety of pigments.
◦ A reaction centre chlorophyll molecule.
◦ An electron acceptor.
 The clusters of pigments absorb as much
light energy as possible.

 The different pigments transfer the absorbed

energy from one to another until it reaches
the reaction centre chlorophyll.

 Here the energy is transferred to electrons

causing them to become high-energy
electrons.
 The energised electrons are then passed from
the chlorophyll to the electron acceptor.

 From here the energised electrons flow from

the electron acceptor along one of two
different pathways.
 The high-energy electrons pass from the
chlorophyll to the electron acceptor.

 They then pass through a series of other

electron acceptors and back to the
chlorophyll molecule again.
◦ When the electrons return to the chlorophyll in this
way they lose energy.

 The energy released is used to form ATP and

water:
ADP + energy + P ATP + water
 As the electrons travel in a cycle and return to
the original chlorophyll this process is called
cyclic electron flow.
 Two high-energy electrons at a time are
passed from the chlorophyll to the electron
acceptor and along another series of electron
acceptors.

 This time the energised electrons do not

return to the chlorophyll.
◦ They lose some energy as they pass from acceptor
to acceptor.
◦ This energy is used to make more ATP.
ADP + energy + P ATP + Water
 Eventually the two electrons combine with
NADP+ to temporarily form NADP-.
NADP+ + 2 electrons (2e-) NADP-

 The chlorophyll molecule is now short of

electrons, it gains new electrons from
photolysis (the splitting of water using light).

 The stored protons formed by the splitting of

water are attracted to NADP- and combine
with it to reduce it to NADPH.
NADP- + proton (hydrogen ion H+) NADPH
 The electrons in pathway 2 are not recycled
so we call pathway 2 non-cyclic electron flow.
 By the end of the light stage three end-
products have formed:
◦ ATP – this will supply energy for dark stage
reactions.
◦ NADPH – this will supply protons and energised
electrons for dark stage reactions.
◦ Oxygen – this can be used for respiration or it can
be released into the atmosphere.
 The dark stage reactions take place in the
stroma of the chloroplast.

 The dark stage is sometimes called the Calvin

Cycle.
◦ This is after the scientist Melvin Calvin who
discovered the events that take place in it.

 The reactions of the dark stage are controlled

by enzymes.
◦ This means that the dark stage is affected by
temperature.
 The NADPH made in the light stage releases
hydrogen ions (H+) and electrons.
NADPH NADP+ + 2e- + H+

 CO2 (from air or respiration) combines with

the H+ and electrons to form glucose (a
carbohydrate).

 The energy needed to form glucose comes

from the conversion of ATP to ADP and
phosphate.
ATP + water ADP + P + energy
 The NADP+, ADP and P molecules that are
produced in the dark stage are reused in the
light stage.

 Carbon dioxide is said to be reduced

(electrons are added) to glucose, this process
is outlined below: