 Due to the huge diversity of organisms on

our planet it is necessary to classify

organisms into different groups.

 A species is a group of similar organisms that

are capable of interbreeding with each other
to produce fertile offspring.

 Variation means the differences in

characteristics between members of the same
species.
 There are two types of variations:
◦ Inherited Variation – these variations are controlled
by genes and can be passed on to the next
generation.
◦ Acquired Variation – these are not inherited or
controlled by genes but are learned or developed
during life.
 Heredity is the passing on of features from
parents to offspring by means of genes.
◦ Humans inherit genes to control features such as
the number of fingers.

 A gene is a section of DNA that causes the

production of a protein and controls a single
trait.

 Gene expression is the process of changing

the information in a gene into a protein.
◦ Genes may not be expressed if the environmental
conditions are not favourable e.g. gene for tallness
won’t be expressed without proper nutrition.
 Chromosomes are
made of protein and
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic
acid).
◦ The protein is
responsible for
holding the DNA
tightly packed so that
it can fit into the
nucleus.
 DNA is a very long molecule
that consists of two strands.

 The two strands are linked

together by paired bases.

 There are four different bases:

◦ Adenine (A)
◦ Thymine(T)
◦ Guanine (G)
◦ Cytosine (C)
 Each base can only link with one other type:
◦ A with T
◦ C with G

 These pairs are called complementary bases.

 If one strand of a DNA molecule has the

sequence TAGCAT then the sequence on the
partner strand must be ATCGTA.
 The structure of DNA was worked out by
James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

 DNA is made up of units called nucleotides

which are arranged into very long chains
called polynucleotides.

 The detailed structure of DNA can be

considered under three headings:
◦ Nucleotides
◦ Base Pairs
◦ Double Helix
1. Nucleotides
 A nucleotide consists of three parts:

 The sugar in the DNA nucleotide is

deoxyribose (a 5-carbon sugar).

 There are four nitrogenous bases:

◦ Two purines (double-ring molecules)
 Adenine and Guanine
◦ Two pyrimidines (single-ring molecules)
 Thymine and Cytosine
 This means that there are four distinct
nucleotides:

 The nucleotides join together with a bond

between the phosphate of one and the sugar
of the next.
2. Base Pairs
 The bases join together in a specific way:
◦ Adenine and Thymine form two hydrogen bonds.
◦ Guanine and Cytosine form three hydrogen bonds.

 Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds formed

when a slightly positive hydrogen is attracted
by another slightly negative atom (e.g.
nitrogen or oxygen).
3. Double Helix
 Watson and Crick
discovered that DNA
consisted of two helical
or spiral chains of
polynucleotides.

 The outside strands of

this double helix are
made of phosphate and
deoxyribose.
Coding DNA (Exons)
 Only about 3% of DNA is made up of genes.
◦ Sections of DNA that causes the production of
proteins.

 DNA codes for each amino acid found in a

protein by using a sequence of three
consecutive bases called a triplet (or codon).

 A gene is a long stretch of triplets that

produce a protein.
Non-coding DNA (Introns)
 About 97% of DNA does not carry the code
for the production of proteins.
◦ This is known as junk DNA.

 The exact function of non-coding DNA is not

known.
◦ The sequence of bases in non-coding DNA varies
greatly from one person to another.
 Before cells can divide, the DNA in each
single-stranded chromosome must produce
an exact copy of itself.
◦ The chromosomes become double-stranded.
◦ This occurs during interphase.
1. The DNA double helix unwinds.
2. An enzyme breaks the bonds between the
base pairs.
3. DNA bases present in the cytoplasm enter
the nucleus and attach to exposed
complementary bases.
◦ Each side of the DNA molecule acts as a template
for a new DNA molecule.
4. Each new piece of DNA rewinds to form a
double helix.
◦ Each new strand is identical to the original DNA
strand and to each other.
 DNA profiling is a method of making a unique
pattern of bands from the DNA of a person
which can then be used to distinguish that
DNA from other DNA.

 DNA profiling uses non-coding DNA as this

differs greatly from person to person.

 There are four steps involved in DNA

profiling.
1. DNA is Released
 Cells are broken down to release their DNA.
◦ If the amount of DNA is too small it can be
increased.

2. DNA is Cut
 The DNA is cut up into fragments using
restriction enzymes.
◦ These enzymes recognise specific sections of DNA
bases and cut the DNA at these points.
◦ This gives lots of fragments of different lengths.
3. Fragments Separated
 The fragments are separated by length using
electrophoresis.
◦ The samples are placed into a gel.
◦ Electricity is passed through it, this carries the DNA
through the gel as DNA is negatively charged.
◦ The smaller fragments move faster.

 A radioactive material is added to the DNA to

make it fluorescent.
◦ A photographic copy is then made.
4. Patterns Compared
 No two people will have the same DNA profile
unless they are identical twins.
◦ If the pattern of bands from two samples is the
same then they must come from the one person.

 DNA profiling can be used in:

◦ Forensics – to discover if blood, hair, saliva etc. at a
crime scene match a suspect.
◦ Parentage – to determine whether a person is, or is
not, the parent of a child.
 Genetic screening is the testing DNA for the
presence or absence of a particular gene or
an altered gene.

 Genetic screening can be used to:

◦ Check if a person is a carrier of a disorder such as
cystic fibrosis.
 This can show the likelihood of their children having
the disorder.
◦ Check if a newborn child has any genetic disorders.
 DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids and both
have four bases.

 RNA differs from DNA in the following ways:

◦ RNA contains ribose not deoxyribose.
◦ RNA contains the base uracil instead of thymine.
 The bases in RNA are A, U, G and C.
 Uracil is the complementary base to adenine.
◦ RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
◦ The bases in RNA are complementary to those in a
section of DNA.
◦ RNA can move out of the nucleus into the
cytoplasm, DNA remains in the nucleus.
 Genes control cell activities by producing
proteins.
◦ Many of these are enzymes.

 The bases in DNA and RNA work in groups of

three, each group of three bases causes one
amino acid to become part of the protein
being made.
 The main steps in protein synthesis are:
1. The DNA strands separate.
2. RNA bases attach onto the exposed bases on
one side of the DNA.
◦ The RNA strand formed is called messenger RNA
(mRNA).

 Transcription is the copying of a sequence of

genetic bases from DNA onto messenger
RNA (mRNA).
3. The mRNA detaches from the DNA and
moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
4. The mRNA passes through a ribosome.
◦ As it passes through, each group of three bases
causes an amino acid to attach onto the protein
that is made in the ribosome.

 Translation is the conversion of a sequence

of genetic bases on mRNA into a sequence of
amino acids.

5. The protein becomes folded as it emerges

from the ribosome.
◦ This allows the protein to carry out its function.
Initiation
1. Enzymes in the nucleus
start to unwind the
DNA double helix at
the site of the gene
that is going to
produce a protein.
Transcription
2. Complementary RNA bases bond with one of
the exposed DNA strands.
3. The enzyme RNA polymerase joins the RNA
bases together to form mRNA.
◦ The mRNA has a series of bases that are
complementary to those in DNA.
4. The mRNA move into the cytoplasm, each
strand carries a:
a) Start codon.
b) Series of codons to specify particular amino acids.
c) Stop codon.
Translation
5. Ribosomes are made up of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and protein.
6. The mRNA strand forms weak bonds with the
rRNA in a ribosome.
◦ This will be the site of protein synthesis.
7. The cytoplasm contains a supply of transfer
RNA (tRNA) molecules. Each tRNA carries:
a) A special triplet or anticodon.
b) A particular amino acid.
8. Each anticodon on a tRNA is complementary
to a codon on the mRNA.

9. The tRNA molecules enter the ribosome and

the first tRNA will attach to the mRNA just
after the start codon.
◦ It brings a particular amino acid to the ribosome.

10.Adjacent amino acids are detached from the

tRNA and are bonded together by the
ribosome to form part of the new protein.
11.tRNAmolecules leave the ribosome without
any attached amino acids and pull the mRNA
strand through the ribosome.

12.tRNA molecules continue to bond with the

mRNA until a stop codon is reached. At this
point:
a) The mRNA code sequence is complete.
b) The new protein is produced.

13.Oncethe protein is formed it folds to allow it

to have the correct shape.
 In sexual reproduction cells that transmit
genes from one generation to another are
called sex cells or gametes.

 During meiosis the diploid number

chromosomes (2n) is reduced to one set and
gametes are formed.
◦ This single set of chromosomes is called the
haploid number (n).

 Fertilisation is the union of two gametes to

form a single cell called a zygote.
 Alleles are different forms of the same gene.
◦ They are found at the same position on similar
chromosomes.
◦ Normally two different types of the same gene
exist.

 The locus of a gene is its location on a

chromosome.

 A dominant allele means that the allele

prevents the working of the recessive allele.
◦ Dominant alleles are symbolised by a capital letter
e.g. B.
 A recessive allele means the allele is
prevented from working by a dominant allele.
◦ Recessive alleles are symbolised by a small letter
e.g. b.

 Genotype means the genetic make-up of an

organism i.e. the genes that are present.

 Phenotype means the physical appearance of

an organism.
◦ This can be influenced by the environment e.g. the
amount of melanin produced will depend on
exposure to UV light.
 Homozygous means that two alleles are the
same.
◦ Homozygous dominant – both alleles are dominant
e.g. BB.
◦ Homozygous recessive – both alleles are recessive
e.g. bb.

 Heterozygous means that the alleles are

different e.g. Bb.
 Progeny refers to the offspring that are
produced.

 The F1 progeny refers to the first generation

of offspring.

 The F2 progeny refers to the second

generation of offspring.
Example One
 In cats, black coat (B) is dominant over white
coat (b). Give the genotypes and phenotypes
for the offspring of a cross involving two cats
whose genotypes are BB and bb.
Answer One
Parental
Black x White
Phenotypes
Parental
BB x bb
Genotypes
meiosis

Gametes B x b
fertilisation
F1
Bb
Genotypes

F1
All black
Phenotypes
 A Punnett square is used to show the possible
combinations of gametes of the progeny in a
genetic cross.
= Possible Gametes
Parent Two
= Possible Genotypes
of offspring
Parent One
Question Two
 In pea plants, green pods (G) are dominant to
yellow pods (g). Show the genotypes and
phenotypes of the F1 progeny that results
from crossing two heterozygous plants.
Answer Two
Parental
Green x Green
Phenotypes
Parental Gg Gg
x
Genotypes

G g

G GG Gg
Gametes

g Gg gg

F1
Genotypes GG Gg Gg gg

F1
3 green pods : 1 yellow pod
Phenotypes
Question Three
 In flies, long wing is dominant to short wing.
If a homozygous dominant fly is crossed with
a homozygous recessive fly:
a) What letter should represent long wing?
b) Give the genotype of the homozygous dominant
parent.
c) State the phenotype of the homozygous dominant
parent.
d) Give the genotypes of all the gametes produced.
e) If 100 flies are produced, how many would you
expect to be:
i. Long winged.
ii. Homozygous dominant.
Answer Three
Parental
Long wing x Short wing
Phenotypes
Parental
LL x ll
Genotypes

Gametes L x l

F1
Ll
Genotypes

F1
All long wing
Phenotypes
a) Long wing = L.
b) Genotype of homozygous dominant parent
= LL.
c) Phenotype of homozygous dominant parent
= long wings.
d) Gamete genotypes = L and l.
e) If 100 flies are produced:
i. Expect 100 long wing.
ii.Expect none of the flies to be homozygous
dominant.
Question Four
 In flies, straight wing (S) is dominant over
curved wing (s). A homozygous dominant fly
is crossed with a curved wing fly. Show the
possible genotypes and phenotypes for the F1
generation of this cross.
Answer Four
Parental Straight Curved
x
Phenotypes wing wing
Parental
SS x ss
Genotypes

Gametes S x s

F1
Ss
Genotypes

F1
All straight wing
Phenotypes
Question Five
 In the fruit fly, Drosophila, body colour is
controlled by two alleles. The allele for grey
body (G) is dominant to the allele for black
body (g). If two heterozygous flies are
crossed, show by diagrams that the ratio of
flies with grey bodies to flies with black
bodies is 3:1.
Answer Five
Parental
Grey body x Grey body
Phenotypes
Parental Gg Gg
x
Genotypes

G g

G GG Gg
Gametes

g Gg gg

F1
Genotypes GG Gg Gg gg

F1
3 grey bodies : 1 black body
Phenotypes
 Incomplete dominance means that neither
allele is dominant over the other and both are
expressed in the heterozygous condition.

 One example of incomplete dominance is

flower colour in snapdragons.
◦ RR produces red flowers.
◦ rr produces white flowers.
◦ Rr produces pink flowers.
Question Six
 Flower colour in snapdragons shows
incomplete dominance, i.e. the heterozygous
condition (Rr) is pink. Give the phenotypes
and genotypes for the progeny of the
following crosses:
a) A white-flowered plant and a red-flowered plant.
b) Two pink-flowered plants.
Answer Six (a)
Parental White
x Red flower
Phenotypes flower
Parental
rr x RR
Genotypes

Gametes r x R

F1
Rr
Genotypes

F1
All pink flowers
Phenotypes
Answer Six (b)
Parental
Pink flower x Pink flower
Phenotypes
Parental Rr Rr
x
Genotypes

R r

R RR Rr
Gametes

r Rr rr

F1
Genotypes RR Rr Rr rr

F1
1 red : 2 pink : 1 white
Phenotypes
 The nucleus of each human body cell has 46
chromosomes (23 pairs). These consist of:
◦ 44 non-sex chromosomes called autosomes.
◦ 2 sex chromosomes.

 The autosomes control features that are

independent of whether a person is male or
female.
 The two sex chromosomes are called the X
and Y chromosomes.

 In humans every body cell nucleus should

have two sex chromosomes.
◦ XX if the individual is female.
◦ XY if the individual is male.
 The arrangement of XX for females and XY for
males has the following consequences:
◦ The male determines the sex of the child.
◦ The ratio of male to female birth should be 1:1.

 In some species sex determination is the

reverse of that in humans.

 In birds, butterflies and moths:

◦ Males are XX.
◦ Females are XY.
Genetic Cross
Parental
Female x Male
Phenotypes
Parental XX XY
x
Genotypes

X Y

Gametes X XX XY

F1
Genotypes XX XY

F1
1 female : 1 male
Phenotypes
 Gregor Mendel is known as the father of
genetics.

 He investigated the inheritance of seven

characteristics of garden pea plants.

 He transferred pollen from the flower of one

plant to another and recorded the appearance
of the resulting plants.
◦ This research resulted in two laws of inheritance.
 Mendel’s first law states that:
◦ Inherited characteristics are controlled by pairs of
factors (alleles).
◦ These factors separate from each other at gamete
formation, with one member of the pair being
found in each gamete.
 Mendel’s second law states that:
◦ Members of one pair of factors separate
independently of members of another pair of
factors at gamete formation.
 A monohybrid cross involves the study of a
single characteristic such as eye colour, seed
shape or coat colour.
◦ Each characteristic can display two traits e.g. brown
eyes or blue eyes.

 A dihybrid cross involves the study of two

characteristics at the same time.
Question Seven
 In pea plants, tall plant (T) is dominant over
small plant (t). In addition, green pod (G) is
dominant over yellow pod (g).
A tall plant with green pods, homozygous
for both traits, is crossed with a small plant
with yellow pods.
a) Why is this a dihybrid cross?
b) Show by diagrams the genotypes and phenotypes
of the progeny of this cross.
Answer Seven (a)
 This is a dihybrid cross because two
characteristics are involved i.e. plant height
and pod colour.
Answer Seven (b)
Parental Tall plant Small plant
x
Phenotypes Green pod Yellow pod
Parental
TTGG x ttgg
Genotypes

Gametes TG x tg

F1
TtGg
Genotypes

F1
Tall plants with green pods
Phenotypes
Question Eight
 In guinea pigs, black coat (B) is dominant to
white coat (b). Also short hair (S) is dominant
to long hair (s).
a) Show the genotypes and phenotypes of the F1
progeny for a cross involving a black-coated,
short-haired guinea pig, heterozygous for both
traits, and a white coated, long-haired animal.
b) State the expected ratio of the offspring.
Answer Eight (a)
Parental BbSs bbss
x
Genotypes

bs

BS BbSs

Gametes
Bs Bbss

bS bbSs

bs bbss

F1
BbSs Bbss bbSs bbss
Genotypes
Black coat, short hair
F1 Black coat, long hair
Phenotypes White coat, short hair
White coat, long hair
Answer Eight (b)
 The offspring are expected to occur in the
ratio 1:1:1:1
Question Nine
 A homozygous purple-flowered, short
stemmed plant was crossed with a red-
flowered, long-stemmed plant.
All the F1 offspring were purple-flowered
with short stems.
a) State the dominant and recessive traits.
b) Explain, using diagrams, why the F1 plants all had
the same phenotypes.
c) Give the expected phenotype ratios if an F1 plant
is selfed.
Answer Nine (a)
 Purple-flowered and short stemmed are the
dominant traits.
 Red-flowered and long-stemmed are the
recessive traits.
Answer Nine (b)
Parental Purple flower Red flower
x
Phenotypes Short stem Long stem
Parental
PPSS x ppss
Genotypes

Gametes PS x ps

F1
PpSs
Genotypes

F1
All purple-flowered, short-stemmed
Phenotypes
 Answer Nine (c)
Parental PpSs PpSs
x
Genotypes
PS Ps pS ps

PS PPSS PPSs PpSS PpSs

Ps PPSs PPss PpSs Ppss

Gametes

pS PpSS PpSs ppSS ppSs

ps PpSs Ppss ppSs ppss

Purple-flowered, short-stemmed = 9
F2 Purple-flowered, long stemmed = 3
Phenotypes Red-flowered, short-stemmed = 3
Red-flowered, long-stemmed = 1
F2 Phenotype
9:3:3:1
Ratio
 Linkage means that genes are located on the
same chromosome.
◦ Linked genes are passed on together to the next
generation.

 The genes R and S are linked, as are the

genes r and s.
◦ Nothing is linked to the genes T and t.
Question Ten
 Draw simple chromosome diagrams to
illustrate the following cells. In each case
show the gametes that might be produced.
a) The genes are not linked and the genotype is
AaBb.
b) The genes are linked (A to B and a to b) and the
genotype is AaBb.
Answer Ten (a)
Answer Ten (b)
Question Eleven
 Show the expected genotypes of the progeny
for the following cross, AaBb x aabb.
a) Where there is no linkage.
b) Where the genes are linked, A to B and a to b.
Answer Eleven (a)
Parental AaBb aabb
x
Genotypes
ab

AB AaBb
Gametes
Ab Aabb

aB aaBb

ab aabb

F1 Ratio 1:1:1:1
Answer Eleven (b)
Parental
x
Genotypes

Gametes

F1 Ratio 1:1
 The ratios of the genotypes of the gametes
produced by linked crosses are different from
those produced by non-linked crosses.

 This results in linked crosses producing

different ratios of offspring than might be
otherwise expected.
 The X chromosome carries a large number of
genes, the Y chromosome is much shorter
than the X and carries very few genes.

 Sex linkage means that a characteristic is

controlled by a gene on an X chromosome.
◦ They are also said to be X-linked.

 With sex-linked characteristics there is no

corresponding allele on the Y chromosome.
◦ Males suffer more often from recessive sex-linked
characteristics.
Colour-blindness
 Normal individuals can detect three colours
of light (red, green and blue).
◦ The allele for normal vision (N) is dominant.
◦ Colour-blindness (n) usually means an inability to
distinguish red from green.

 The gene for colour vision is located on an X

chromosome.
Female Colour-blindness
 Colour-blindness is very rare in females as
they would need to have two copies of the
recessive allele.

 Genotypes:
XNXN XNX n XnXn
Male Colour-blindness
 Colour-blindness is more common in males
as they only need to have one copy of the
recessive allele.

 Genotypes:
XNY- XnY-
Haemophilia
 Haemophilia is a bleeding disorder caused by
a lack of a blood clotting protein.
◦ Without treatment, some haemophiliacs may bleed
to death after a small cut.

 Haemophilia is caused by a gene that is

located on the X chromosome.
◦ The dominant allele (N) produces the clotting
protein.
◦ The recessive allele (n) does not produce the
protein.
Question Twelve
 The gene for haemophilia is located on an X
chromosome. Normal blood clotting (N) is
dominant over haemophilia (n).
Show the genotypes and phenotypes of
the offspring of a cross between a mother
who is a carrier and a father who is normal
for this trait.
Answer Twelve

Parental X N Xn X NY-
x
Genotypes

XN Y-

XN X N XN X NY-
Gametes
Xn X N Xn X n Y-

Female, normal clotting

F1 Female, normal clotting (carrier)
Phenotypes Male, normal clotting
Male, haemophiliac
 Most of the DNA in a cell is located in the
nucleus.

 Non-nuclear genes are present as small

circles of DNA in mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
◦ These organelles reproduce by themselves and pass
on their genes to the resulting organelles.

 Non-nuclear DNA is passed along the

maternal line through the egg.
 Inherited variations are caused by:
◦ Sexual reproduction
◦ Mutation

Sexual Reproduction
 Gamete formation ensures genetic variation
as chromosomes are assorted independently
of each other during meiosis.
 The random fertilisation between gametes
from different parents also ensures variation.
Mutation
 A mutation is a change in the amount or
structure of DNA.
Causes of Mutations
 Spontaneous mutations arise naturally when
DNA does not produce exact copies of itself
or when it fails to repair properly.
 Mutagens are agents that cause mutations.
◦ Ionising radiation such as X-rays, UV rays and
gamma rays.
◦ Chemicals such as formaldehyde, tobacco smoke
and many drugs.
Types of Mutations
 Gene mutations are changes in a single gene.
◦ This is often caused by a change in a single base
pair resulting in an allele.
 Sickle cell anaemia is an inherited blood
disorder caused by a mutation in the
haemoglobin gene.
◦ The mutated gene is recessive and a person with
two copies of it produces an insoluble form of
haemoglobin causing their red blood cells to
become curved.
 This causes the breakdown of red blood cells leading
to paleness, weakness, heart failure, damage to organs
and often death.
Types of Mutations
 Chromosome mutations are large changes in
the structure or number of one or more
chromosomes.
 Down’s Syndrome is a chromosome mutation
caused by the presence of one extra
chromosome.
◦ This often arises from a fault in meiosis where the
egg has two number 21 chromosomes, the sperm
then adds a third one during fertilisation.
 This produces a range of physical and mental features
associated with Down’s Syndrome.
 Evolution is the way in which living things
change genetically to produce new forms of
life over long periods of time.

 The most widely accepted modern theory of

the way in which evolution takes place is
based on the work of Charles Darwin.

 It is known as the theory of natural selection.

◦ Alfred Wallace also had the same idea as Darwin.
 The theory of natural selection is based on
three observations and two conclusions
derived from these observations.

Observations
 Organisms produce large numbers of
offspring e.g. plants produce thousand of
seeds.
 Population numbers in an area remain
constant.
 Members of a population show genetic or
inherited differences.
Conclusions
 There is a struggle for existence if large
numbers of offspring are formed and the
environment cannot support them all.
 Those organisms that have variations which
enable them to adapt better to their
environment will survive and reproduce
passing on their variations to the next
generation.
◦ This is known as natural selection.
 Some evidence for evolution includes:
◦ The study of fossils
◦ Comparative anatomy
◦ Comparative embryology

 The study of fossils is known as

palaeontology.

 A fossil is the remains (or some indication) of

something that lived a long time ago.
 Fossil evidence indicates that:
◦ Life has changed over time.
◦ Life has become more complex.
◦ The changes can be linked to environmental
change.

 The fossil record of the modern horse shows

many trends in its evolution.
◦ One of these trends is height.
 Genetic engineering is the artificial
manipulation or alteration of genes.

 This means that DNA from different

organisms can be joined together.
 Genetic engineering has many applications:
◦ Plants – crops can have genes added to them that
make them resistant to herbicides.
◦ Animals – the gene for producing a blood clotting
factor can be inserted into sheep so they will
produce it in their milk, haemophiliacs can then
drink this.
◦ Microorganisms – the gene for the production of
insulin can be inserted into bacteria, they then
produce insulin which can be used by diabetics.
 The stages involved in genetic engineering
include:
◦ Isolation of a chromosome containing the required
gene and a plasmid.
◦ Cutting the gene out of the chromosome and
cutting the plasmid using restriction enzymes.
◦ Ligation (or joining) of the target gene into the
plasmid.
◦ Transformation i.e. getting the bacteria to take in
the plasmid.
◦ Expression of the required protein i.e. getting the
bacteria to make the desired product.
 Some concerns surrounding genetic
engineering are:
◦ The release of genetically modified organisms into
the environment.
◦ The fear that animals will suffer as a result of being
genetically modified.
◦ The fear that humans may be genetically modified.