Air & Fuel Induction

1. Supercharging and Turbocharging

2. Dual Fuel Engines

3. Intake for Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

4. Intake for CI Engines

 Superchargers and turbochargers are compressors
mounted in the intake system and used to raise the pressure of
the incoming air.
This results in more air and fuel entering each cylinder
during each cycle. This added air and fuel creates more power
during combustion, and the net power output of the engine is
increased.
Pressure increase can be anywhere from 20 to 250 kPa,
with most engines on the lower end of this scale.
Figure 1-8 Supercharger used to increase inlet air pressure to engine. Compressor
is driven off engine crankshaft, which gives fast response to speed changes but
adds parasitic load to engine.
 Superchargers are mechanically driven directly off the
engine crankshaft. Generally positive displacement compressors
running at speeds about the same as engine speed (fig. 1-8).
The power to drive the compressor is a parasitic load on
the engine output, and this is one of the major disadvantages
compared to a turbocharger. Other disadvantages include higher
cost, greater weight, and noise.
A major advantage of a supercharger is very quick
response to throttle changes. Being mechanically linked to the
crankshaft, any engine speed change is immediately transferred
to the compressor.
 Some high-performance automobile engines and just
about all large CI engines are supercharged. All two-stroke cycle
engines which are not crankcase compressed (a form of
supercharging) must be either supercharged or turbocharged.
When the first law of thermodynamics is applied to the air flowing
through a supercharger compressor,

----5-13
 This assumes that the compressor heat transfer, kinetic energy
terms, and potential energy terms are negligibly small, true for most
compressors. All compressors have isentropic efficiencies less than
100%, so the actual power needed will be greater than the ideal.
In Fig.5-7 process 1-2s represents ideal isentropic compression,
while process 1-2A is the actual process with an increase in entropy.
The isentropic efficiency ƞs of the supercharger compressor is:
(ƞs)sc = Wisen /Wact = [ma(h2s - h1)]/[[ma(h2A - h1)] ---------(5-14)
=
If the inlet temperature and pressure are known as well as the
designed output pressure, the ideal gas isentropic relationship can
be used to find T2s: --------------------------------------- (5-15)
The actual outlet temperature T2A can then be calculated from Eq.
(5-14) if the isentropic efficiency is known. When using Eq. (5-15),
a value of k = 1.40 should be used because of the lower temperature
at this point. There is also a mechanical efficiency of less than
100% between the powertaken from the engine and what is
delivered to the compressor: ---------------------- (5-16)
 For added engine output power, it is desirable to have the
higher input air pressure supplied by the supercharger. However, the
supercharger also raises the inlet air temperature by compressive
heating, as can be seen in Eq. (5-15).
This is undesirable in SI engines. If the temperature at the
start of the compression stroke is higher, all temperatures in the rest
of the cycle will also be higher.
Often, this will cause self-ignition and knocking problems
during combustion. To avoid this, many superchargers are
equipped with an after-cooler that cools the compressed air back
to a lower temperature.
 The after-cooler can be either an air-to-air or air-to-liquid heat
exchanger. The cooling fluid can be air flowing through the engine
compartment, or it can be engine liquid coolant in a more complex
system.
Some superchargers are made up of two or more
compressor stages with an after-cooler following each stage. After-
coolers are not needed on superchargers used on CI engines
because there is no concern about knock problems.
After-coolers are costly and take up space in the engine
compartment. In these engines generally the compression ratios are
reduced to avoid problems of self-ignition and knock.
Fig 1-9 Turbocharger used to increase
inlet air pressure to engine. Turbine
that drives compressor is powered by
exhaust flow from engine. This adds
no load to the engine but results in
turbo lag, a slower response to
engine speed changes.
Turbochargers
The compressor of a turbocharger is powered by a turbine
mounted in the exhaust flow of the engine. The advantage of this is
that none of the engine shaft output is used to drive the
compressor, and only waste energy in the exhaust is used.
However, the turbine in the exhaust flow causes a more
restricted flow, resulting in a slightly higher pressure at the cylinder
exhaust port. This reduces the engine power output very slightly.
Turbocharged engines generally have lower specific fuel
consumption rates. They produce more power, while the friction
power lost remains about the same.
 Maximum pressure in an engine exhaust system is only very
little above atmospheric, so there can only be a very small pressure
drop through the turbine.
Because of this, it is necessary to run the turbine at very
high speeds so that enough power is produced to run the
compressor. Speeds of 100,000 to 130,000 RPM are common.
These high speeds, and the fact that exhaust gas is a hot,
corrosive environment, demand special materials and concern for
long-term reliability.
 A disadvantage of turbochargers is turbo lag, which occurs
with a sudden throttle change. When the throttle is quickly opened
to accelerate an automobile, the turbocharger will not respond quite
as quickly as a supercharger.
It takes several engine revolutions to change the exhaust
flow rate and to speed up the rotor of the turbine. Turbo lag has
been greatly reduced by using lightweight ceramic rotors that can
withstand the high temperatures and that have very little mass
inertia.
Turbo lag can also be reduced by using a smaller intake
manifold.
 Most turbochargers, like superchargers, are equipped with an
aftercooler to again lower the compressed air temperature. Many also
have a bypass that allows the exhaust gases to be routed around the
turbocharger when an inlet air pressure boost is not needed.
Some modern turbines are being developed which have a
variable blade angle. As the engine speed or load is changed, the
blade angle can be adjusted to give maximum efficiency at each
flow rate.
Radial flow centrifugal compressors, turning at high speed, are
generally used on automobile-size engines. On very large engines,
axial flow compressors are used because of their greater efficiency at
the higher air flow rates. The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is
defined (Eq 5.17)as:
INTAKE FOR TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
Inlet air in two-stroke cycle engines must be input at a
pressure greater than atmospheric. Following blowdown, at the
start of the intake process the cylinder is still filled with exhaust gas
at atmospheric pressure.
There is no exhaust stroke. Air under pressure enters the
cylinder and pushes most of the remaining exhaust residual out
the still-open exhaust port. This is called scavenging.
When most of the exhaust gas is out, the exhaust port closes
and the cylinder is filled with air. At part throttle inlet pressure is low,
and this results in poorer scavenging.
 There are two general methods of putting air into the
cylinders: through normal intake valves, or through intake slots in
the cylinder walls. The intake air is pressurized using a supercharger,
turbocharger, or crankcase compression.
Two-stroke cycle engines have open combustion chambers. It
would be extremely difficult to get proper scavenging in a cylinder
with a divided chamber.
Some modern experimental two-stroke cycle automobile
engines use standard-type superchargers and input the air through
intake valves with no fuel added.
The compressed air scavenges the cylinder and leaves it filled with
air and a small amount of exhaust residual. After the intake valve is
closed, fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber by
injectors mounted in the cylinder head

This is done to avoid HC pollution from fuel passing into

the exhaust system when both exhaust and intake valves are open.
In some automobile engines, air is injected with the fuel. This
speeds evaporation and mixing, which is required because of the
very short time of the compression stroke.
 Fuel injection pressure is on the order of 500 to 600 kPa,
while air injection pressure is slightly less at about 500 kPa.
For SI engines fuel injection occurs early in the compression
stroke, immediately after the exhaust valve closes.
In CI engines the injection occurs late in the compression
stroke, a short time before combustion starts.
Other modern automobile engines, and just about all small
two-stroke cycle engines, due to cost, use crankcase compression
to force air into and scavenge the cylinders.
 In these engines, air is introduced at atmospheric pressure into
the cylinder below the piston through a one-way valve when the
piston is near TDC.
The power stroke pushes the piston down and compresses the
air in the crankcase, which has been designed for this dual purpose.
The compressed air then passes through an input channel into the
combustion chambers.
In modern automobile engines, the fuel is added with
injectors, as with supercharged engines.
 This is done to keep the cost down on small engines, simple
carburetors being cheap to build. As pollution laws become more
stringent, fuel injectors will probably become more common in
small engines.
Exhaust blowdown occurs at about 100°to 110° aTDC when the
exhaust valve is opened or when the exhaust slots in the cylinder
walls are uncovered.
Slightly later, at about 50° bBDC, intake occurs by means of valves
or intake slots located a short distance below the exhaust slots in the
cylinder walls. Either air or an air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder at
a pressure of 1.2 to 1.8 atmospheres, as explained previously.
 The pressurized air pushes out most of the remaining
exhaust gas through the still-open exhaust valves or slots. Ideally,
the incoming air will force most of the exhaust gas out of the
cylinder without mixing with it and without too much air-fuel going
out the open exhaust valve.
Some mixing will occur and some fuel will be lost
out the exhaust valve. This will cause lower fuel economy and HC
pollution in the exhaust. To avoid this, only air is input and used
for scavenging in modern experimental two-stroke cycle
automobile engines. Fuel is added with injectors after the intake
valve is closed.
 Lubricating oil must be added to the inlet air on those
engines that use crankcase compression. The crankcase on these
engines cannot be used as the oil reservoir as with most other
engines. Instead, the surfaces of the engine components are
lubricated by oil vapor carried by the intake air.
On some engines, lubricating oil is mixed directly with the
fuel and is vaporized in the carburetor along with the fuel. Other
engines have a separate oil reservoir and feed lubricant directly into
the intake air flow.
 Two negative results occur because of this method of
lubrication. First, some oil vapor gets into the exhaust flow during
valve overlap and contributes directly to HC exhaust emissions.
Second, combustion is less efficient due to the poorer fuel
quality of the oil. Engines which use superchargers or
turbochargers generally use standard pressurized lubrication
systems, with the crankcase serving as the oil reservoir.
To avoid an excess of exhaust residual, no pockets of
stagnant flow or dead zones can be allowed in the scavenging
process.
 This is controlled by the size and position of the intake
and exhaust slots or valves, by the geometry of the slots in the
wall, and by contoured flow deflectors on the piston face. Figure
5-10 shows several geometric configurations of scavenging that are
used.
Cross Scavenged Intake slots and exhaust slots are
located on opposite sides of the cylinder wall. Proper design is
required to assure that the intake air deflects up without short-
circuiting and leaving a stagnant pocket of exhaust gas at the head
end of the cylinder.
 Loop Scavenged Intake and exhaust ports are on the
same side of the cylinder wall, and incoming air flows in a loop.
Uniflow Scavenged or Through-Flow Scavenged Intake
ports are in the cylinder walls and exhaust valves in the head (or
intake valves are in the head and exhaust ports are in the wall, which
is less common). This is the most efficient system of scavenging but
requires the added cost of valves.
Fig. 5-10 Common scavenging geometries for two-stroke cycle engines.
(a) Cross scavenged with intake ports & exhaust ports on opposite sides of
cylinder. (b) Loop scavenged with intake ports &exhaust ports on same
side of the cylinder. (c) Uniflow scavenged (or through-flow scavenged)
with intake ports in cylinder walls and exhaust valve in head.
 Other variations and combinations of these types exist,
depending on the placement of slots and/or valves.
For the same power generation, more air input is
required in a two-stroke cycle engine than in a four-stroke cycle
engine. This is because some of the air is lost in the overlap
period of the scavenging process.
A number of different intake and performance efficiencies
are defined for the intake process of a two-stroke cycle engine.
Volumetric efficiency of a four-stroke cycle engine can be replaced
by either delivery ratio or charging efficiency:
INTAKE FOR CI ENGINES

CI engines are operated un-throttled, with engine speed and

power controlled by the amount of fuel injected during each

cycle. This allows for high volumetric efficiency at all speeds, with

the intake system designed for very little flow restriction of the

incoming air.

Further raising the volumetric efficiency is the fact that no fuel

is added until late in the compression stroke, after air intake is

fully completed. In addition, many CI engines are turbocharged,

which enhances air intake even more.

 Fuel is added late in the compression stroke, starting
somewhere around 20° bTDC. Injectors mounted in the cylinder
head inject directly into the combustion chamber, where self-
ignition occurs due to the high temperature of the air caused by
compressive heating.
It takes a short period of time for the fuel to evaporate, mix
with the air, and then self-ignite, so combustion starts shortly
bTDC. At this time fuel is still being injected, which keeps
combustion occurring well into the power stroke.
 It is important that fuel with the correct cetane number be
used in an engine so that self-ignition initiates the start of
combustion at the proper cycle position.
A distribution of fuel droplet sizes is desirable so that the
start of combustion of all fuel particles is not simultaneous, but is
spread over a short period of cycle time.
This slows the start of the pressure pulse on the piston and
gives smoother engine operation.
Time duration of injection in a CI engine is less than that
in SI engines.
 Injection pressure for CI engines must be much higher than
that required for SI engines. The cylinder pressure into which the
fuel is first injected is very high near the end of the compression
stroke, due to the high compression ratio of CI engines. Pressure must
be high enough so that fuel spray will penetrate across entire
combustion chamber.
Injection pressures of 200 to 2000 atmospheres are
common, with average fuel droplet size generally decreasing with
increasing pressure. Orifice hole size of injectors is typically in the
range of 0.2 to 1.0mm diameter. During injection, the mass flow rate
of fuel through an injector is: ------------------ Eq # 5.26
 To satisfy this can require very high injector pressure at
higher engine speeds. On some modern injectors, orifice flow area An
can be varied some to allow greater flow at higher speeds.
Big, slow..•..engines with large open combustion chambers have low
air motion and turbulence within the cylinder.
The injector is mounted near the center of the chamber,
often with five or six orifices to spray over the entire chamber.
Because of the low turbulence, evaporation and mixing are
slower and real time between start of injection and start of
combustion is longer.
 However, engine speed is slower, so injection timing in cycle
time is about the same. Large engines must have very high
injection pressure and high spray velocity. With lower air motion
and turbulence, high liquid spray velocity is needed to enhance
evaporation and mixing. Also, high velocity is needed to assure that
some spray reaches fully across the large combustion chamber.
Injectors with multiple orifices require higher pressure to obtain the
same injection velocity and penetration distance.
Fuel velocity leaving the injector can be as high as 250
m/sec. However, viscous drag and evaporation reduce this very
quickly.
 For optimum fuel viscosity and spray penetration, it is
important to have fuel at the correct temperature. Often, engines
are equipped with temperature sensors and means of heating or
cooling the incoming fuel. Many large truck engines are equipped
with heated fuel filters. This allows the use of cheaper fuel that
has less viscosity control.
Small high-speed engines need much faster evaporation
and mixing of the fuel due to the shorter real time available
during the cycle.
This occurs because of the high turbulence and motion
within the cylinder caused by high engine speed.
 As speed is increased, the level of turbulence and air motion
increases. This increases evaporation and mixing and shortens ignition
delay, resulting in fairly constant injection timing for all speeds. Part of
the fuel spray is often directed against hot