Basic Electronics

By: Muhammad Haris Shams

 Lecture 1
• The Bohr Model
• Electrons and Shells
• Insulators, Conductors and
Semiconductors
• Band Gap
• N-Type Semiconductors
• P-Type Semiconductors
• The PN Junction 2
2/7/2016
 The Bohr Model
• Atom is the smallest particle of an
element
• Each of 118 element has an atom
different from the atoms of all the
other elements
• According to Bohr, “Atoms have a
planetary structure that consists of
central nucleus surrounded by
orbitrary electron”
• Nucleus= + charged protons,
uncharged neutrons and – charged e-
• E.g. Hydrogen atom= 1 proton and 1
e-
• Whereas, Helium atom= 2 protons, 2
neutrons and 2e-
 Atomic Number
• Atomic Number is the number of protons in
nucleus
• For example, Hydrogen= 1 proton, atomic
number= 1
• Helium= 2 protons, atomic number = 2
 Electrons and shells
• Energy Levels: e- near the
nucleus have less energy
level than those in more
distant orbits.
• Each orbit from nucleus
have certain energy levels
called “Shells”.
• Each shell have a fixed
number of e-
• Formula for Maximum no.
of electrons i.e. Ne= 2n2 ,
where n is the number of
shell
 Continued….
• Valence electrons: Outer most shell is known as
valence shell and the e- in it are called valence
electrons.
• Valence e- contribute to the chemical reactions
• When e- gain energy from an external source, it
can break from its atom.
• Basis for conduction in material
• Ionization: Process of losing an e- is known as
ionization
• Results in positively charged atom called +ive ion
• E.g. when Hydrogen loses an atom, it becomes H+
 Insulators, Conductors and Semi
Conductors
• Insulator: Material that does not conduct
electrical current e.g. rubber, glass, plastics etc.
They have high resistivities
• Conductors: Material that easily conducts
electrical current e.g. copper, silver, aluminum etc.
• Semiconductors: Material with properties in
between insulator and conductor e.g. silicon,
germanium etc. Semiconductor in its pure
form(intrinsic) is neither a good conductor nor a
good insulator
 Band Gap
• As we know that, valence shell of an atom
represents band of energy levels
• When an e- acquires additional energy, it can
leave the valence shell, becoming a free e- known
as Conduction band
• The difference in energy between the valence
band and the conduction band is called Band Gap
or Energy Gap.
• Also, it is the amount of energy that a valence e-
must have in order to jump from the valence band
to conduction band.
Band Gap(Diagrammatical View)
 Electrons and Holes
• Electrons are the negative current carriers represented
by e-
• When an e- jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is
left in the valence band, called a Hole
• The Hole is taken to have positive charge of +e
• In order to increase the conductivity of a
semiconductors, pure semiconductor materials are
added to it, called “Doping”
• Doping increases the number of current carriers(e- or
holes)
• There are two types of impurities i.e.
1. N-type
2. P-type
 N-Type Semiconductors
• N stands for negative charge on e-
• To increase the number of conduction band e-
, pentavalent impurities atom are added
• These are the atoms with 5 valence e- i.e.
Arsenic, phosphorous etc
• In n-type material, e- are called the majority
carriers while the holes are called the minority
carriers
 P-Type Semiconductors
• P stands for positive charge
• To increase the number of holes in
semiconductors, trivalent atoms are added
• Three valence e- such as Boron, Indium etc
• Holes are the majority carriers while
electrons are the minority carriers in it
 The PN Junction
• If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped, so that the
part is n-type and other part is a p-type material,
a PN junction is formed and a diode is created.
• When a PN junction is formed:
1. P region loses the holes creating a layer of
negative charges
2. N region loses the e- creating a layer of positively
charges
3. e- and holes combines
• When these two layers combine, the form a
Depletion Region
 Related Questions !!!
• If the atomic number of a neutral atom is 6, how
many electrons does the atom have? How many
protons?
• What is the maximum number of electrons that can
exist in the 3rd shell of an atom?
• What happens when heat is added to silicon?
• Name the two energy bands at which current is
produced in silicon?
• How is the electric field across the PN junction
created?
• Because of its barrier potential, can a diode be used
as a voltage source? Explain.
 Lecture 2
• The Diode
• Forward Bias
• Effect of forward Bias on the Depletion
Region
• Effect of Barrier potential during forward
bias
• Reverse Bias
• Reverse Breakdown
2/14/2016
 The Diode
• Made up of small piece of semiconductor,
usually silicon
• Half doped as n-region and half as p-region,
with a pn-junction and depletion region in
between
• N-region= Cathode(-), P-region= Anode(+)
• A diode is a specialized electronic component
with two electrodes called the anode and the
cathode
Diagrammatical View and some Diodes
 Forward Bias
• To bias a diode, you apply dc voltage
• Forward bias is a condition that allows current
through pn-junction
• Resistor limits the current preventing the
diode to damage
• Since, like charges repel, the –ive side of the
bias voltage “pushes” the free e- , which are
majority in n region, towards the pn-junction
• The flow of e- is called electron current
 Continued….
• Once the e- gains sufficient energy, they move
into the p-region
• Once these conduction e- move in p-region,
they immediately combine with holes in
valence band
 Effect of forward Bias on Depletion
Region
• As more e- flow into the
depletion region, the
number of +ve ions is
reduced
• As more holes flow into
the depletion region,
the number of -ve ions is
reduced
• Reduction of +ive and –
ive ions during forward
bias cause the depletion
region to become
narrow
 Effect of Barrier Potential during
Forward Bias
• Energy Hill: Electric Field between +ive and -ive
ions in the depletion region on either side of the
junction creates an “Energy Hill”
• When forward bias is applied, free e- with enough
energy from the bias voltage overcomes the
barrier potential and cross the depletion region
• Energy required to e- in order to pass through the
depletion region is equal to barrier potential
• The energy loss results in voltage drop across the
pn junction equals the barrier potential (0.7V).
 Reverse Bias
• Condition that prevents the current through the
diode
• +ive side connected to the n-region and –ive
region connected to p-region of diode
• Because unlike charges attract, the +ive side of
the voltage source “pulls” the free e-, which are
the majority carriers in the n-region, away from
the pn-junction
• As the e- flow towards the +ive side of the voltage
source, additional +ive ions are created
• Results in widening of the depletion region
Diagrammatical View
 Reverse Breakdown
• Minimum reverse voltage to make the diode
conduct in reverse
• Normally the reverse current is small that it can be
neglected
• However, if the value is increased to breakdown
voltage, the reverse current will increase
• If reverse current increases, it should be limited. If
its not limited, it will damage the diode
• Most diodes are not operated in the reverse
breakdown, but if the current is limited, there is
no permanent damage to diode
 Experiments(Tasks)
• EXPERIMENT NO - 01: TESTING OF DIODE

• EXPERIMENT NO – 02: PN JUNCTION DIODE

CHARACTERISTICS
 Lecture 3
• The ideal Diode model
• The V-I Characteristics
• The Practical Diode
• Bulk Resistance
• Diode 3rd approximation
• Examples
27
2/21/2016
The Ideal Diode(1st Approximation)
• Can be represented by a simple switch
• When the diode is forward biased, it acts like a
closed(on) switch.
• When the diode is reverse biased, it acts like
an open(off) switch
• Barrier potential is neglected
• Adequate for most trouble shooting, in order
to check whether the diode is working
properly or not
The V-I characteristics
 Continued….
• Since the barrier potential is neglected, the
diode is assumed to have a zero voltage, when
forward biased
• Vf=0
• Forward current(If) is determined by ohms law
i.e.
Vbias=IfRlimit
If = Vbias /Rlimit
• The reverse current is neglected i.e. IR=0
• VR=Vbias
The Practical Diode(2nd approximation)
• Practical contains the barrier potential
• When the diode is forward bias, it is equivalent to
close switch
• Diode in series with voltage divider equal to
barrier potential(0.7V) with +ive side towards the
anode
• This equivalent voltage source represents the
barrier potential that must be exceeded by the
bias voltage before the diode will start conduction
• Also called voltage drop across the diode(0.7V)
The V-I characteristics
 Continued….
• When the diode is reverse biased, it acts like
an open switch
• Barrier potential does not affect reverse bias,
so it is not a factor
• Ignore the bulk resistance as well
If  Vbias  Barrierpot ential / R lim it
• VR=VBias
• Useful when designing basic diode circuits
 Bulk Resistance
• The ohmic resistance of p and n material is called
“Bulk resistance”
• Often less than 1Ω
• Rb of a diode is the approx. resistance across the
diode, when forward voltage and current are
applied
• Calculating Rb with the help of ohms law i.e.
V=IR
Rb=∆Vf/∆If
Where ∆Vf is forward voltage drop and ∆If is forward
current through diode
 Complete Model(3rd approximation)
• Model assumes that no diode current flows
until the forward bias across the diode
reaches 0.7V
• Model does account for the diode’s “Bulk
resistance”
• However, less than 1Ω is ignored
Examples !!!!
 Lecture 4
• Diode Resistance
• Static Resistance
• Dynamic Resistance
• rc(avg) and Rac
• Load lines for a diode circuit
• The ideal Diode law
• Examples
37
 Diode Resistance
• When some external voltage is applied across
a diode, some current flows
• Diode can be imagined to have some resistive
behavior called “Diode Resistance”
• On the basis of applied voltage, diode
resistance can be divided into two parts:
1. Static Resistance
2. Dynamic Resistance
 Static Resistance
• Resistive behavior of diode in presence of DC
source is called “Static Resistance”
• Can be defined as the ratio of applied DC
voltage across the diode and its respective
current
rdc  Vdc / Idc
• For example, a typical forward biased Si diode,
the voltage across the diode= 0.7V and let the
current flowing be 100mA. So;
rdc  7ohm
 Continued….
• For a reverse biased diode, let say the reverse
voltage is 10V, and the reverse current is 1micro
Ampere.
• The static resistance will then be:
rdc  10 MegaOhm
• From the above values, static resistance in
forward direction is low as compared to static
resistance in reverse direction, which is very high
• Very useful in rectifier applications, where diode
conducts freely in one direction and does not
conduct in the other direction
 Dynamic Resistance
• The resistive behavior of a diode in presence
of an ac source is called “Dynamic resistance”
or “ac resistance”
• On the basis of voltage range of applied signal,
it can be divided into two parts:
1. rc(avg) – applicable for large ac signal applied
2. Rac – applicable for small ac signal applied
 rac(avg)
• Dynamic resistance in presence of
large applied signal
• Defined as rc(avg) =∆V/∆I
• Where, ∆V is the change in voltage
across the diode
• ∆I is change in current across the diode
 rac
• Resistive behavior of diode in presence of
small ac source
• For a small ac source, change in voltage and
current will be small
rac=∆V/∆I=∂V/∂I
 Load Analysis for a diode current
• A plot for the current I, versus the voltage
drop VD, across the diode, will yield a straight
line called “the load line”
• Diagram
• The equation for current will be
I=Vs-Vd/Rs+Rl
• A point called “operating point” is also found
and can be calculated through the ideal diode
law
 The ideal Diode Law
• The diode equation gives an expression for the current through a diode
as a function of voltage.
• The Ideal Diode Law, expressed as:

• Where,
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
I0 = the diode leakage current density in the absence of light;
e= Euler’s constant i.e. 2.718281828
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode;
q = absolute value of electron charge i.e. 1.6*10;
k = Boltzmann's constant i.e. 1.38064852 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1;
n= ideality factor(how close a diode follows an ideal diode equation),
normally 2
and
T = absolute temperature (K).
• At 300K(normal room temperature) qv/kt= 26mv
 Continued….
• The "dark saturation current" (I0) is an
extremely important parameter which
differentiates one diode from another
• I0 is a measure of the recombination in a
device.
• A diode with a larger recombination will have a
larger I0
• I0 increases as T increases
 Examples
• Find DC resistance of the diode when ∆V=0.8V
and ∆I= 20mA
• Find DC resistance of a diode, if voltage
applied across a Si diode at room temperature
(300K) is 0.3V. I0 at this temperature is 2µA.
• Find rDC of diode in above example at -0.3V at
same temperature.
 Continued….
• Find rac(avg) of a Si diode at 0.3V, if ac signal
across this diode is 0.3 V at room
temperature(300K). I0 at this temperature is
2µA. The maximum voltage across diode will
be V1=0.5V and minimum voltage will be V2=
0.1V.
 Lecture 5
• Half Wave Rectifier
• Half wave Rectifier Operation
• Average value
• Effect of Barrier Potential on half wave rectifier
• Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV)
• Transformer
• Power ratio
• Transformation Ratio
• Examples
49
 Half Wave Rectifier
• Because of the ability to conduct current in on
one direction, diodes are used in circuits called
“Rectifiers”
• Found in all dc power supplies, operating from
an AC source
• Power supply is used to power all types of
electronic circuits including TV’s, DVD,
computers etc
• A diode is connected to an ac source and load
resistor RL, forming a half wave rectifier
 Continued….
• During the forward biasing of a diode, the
positive input voltage conducts current through
the load resistor, RL
• Current produces an output voltage across RL,
which has the same shape as the positive cycle
of input voltage
 Continued….
• When the input goes negative during the
second half of its cycle, the diode is reverse
bias
• There is no current, so the voltage across the
resistor is 0V
• The net result across the RL is during the +ive
ac input voltage
• Since the output does not change its polarity,
it is a pulsating dc voltage with a frequency
 Average value of Half wave rectifier
output voltage
• Measured on a DC voltmeter
• Let the peak value of voltage be VP
• Mathematically;
VAVG= VP/π

• Shows VAVG is approximately 31.8% of VP for a

half wave rectified voltage
Effect of Barrier Potential on Half wave
rectifier output
• During the practical diode model, barrier
potential(0.7V) is taken into account
• During the +ive cycle, the input voltage must
overcome the barrier potential before the
diode is forward biased
• The result is 0.7V less that peak value of input,
in a half wave output

V P (OUT )  V P ( IN )  0.7V
 Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV)
• Occurs at the peak of each negative half cycle of
the input, when the diode is reverse biased
• In half wave rectifier during the negative half
cycle, the diode is reverse biased

• Equals the peak value of the input voltage and

the diode must be capable of reverse voltage
PIV  VP ( IN )
• It is the maximum voltage the diode conducts
during the reverse bias half cycle of the input
 Transformer
• Useful device which can easily multiply or
divide voltage and current in AC circuits
• AC voltage can be “Stepped Up” and current
“Step Down”
• Voltage levels are reduced by transformers for
safer operations
• A transformer that increases voltage is “Step
up transformer”
• A transformer that decrease the voltage is
“Step Down transformer”
 Continued….
• Two windings i.e. primary and secondary
• A transformer that increases voltage from
primary to secondary windings is “step up
voltage”
• Conversely designed transformer steps down
the voltage
• Uses principle of electro-magnetism to change
an AC voltage level to another(Faraday's Law)
 Turns Ratio
• Calculated by a scientist named “Michael
Faraday”- an English scientist who contributed to
the fields of electromagnetism and
electrochemistry
• Depending on the turn ratio of the transformer
i.e. if the secondary windings has half the number
of turns than the primary, than the secondary
voltage will be half the primary voltage
• If secondary windings is double the primary
windings, the secondary voltage will be twice the
primary voltage
 Power Ratio
• Being a passive component(which needs no
external supply), it cannot produce more power
out from secondary than that of primary
• Passive components- Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor
etc
• Active components- Diode, will not conduct the
current until the supply voltage reach to 0.3(In
case of Germanium) or 0.7V(In case of Silicon)
• If secondary voltage > primary voltage, then
secondary current < primary current
 Transformation Ratio
• Basic operation can be described by the
following two formula’s:
• N P VP
 and N
S

IP

NS VS NP IS

Where N P = Number of primary turns

N I = Number of secondary turns
V P = Primary Voltage
V I = Secondary voltage
 Examples!!!
• What is the average value of the half-wave
rectified voltage with Vp= 50V?
• Determine the average value of the half-wave
voltage if its peak amplitude is 12 V
• Draw the output voltages of each rectifier for
the indicated input voltages, as drawn on the
white-board.
• Determine the peak output voltages for the
rectifiers if the peak input in part (a) is 3 V and
the peak input in part (b) is 50 V.
 Lecture 6
• Full wave rectifier
• Center Tapped Full wave
Rectifier
• Effect of turns ratio on output
voltage
• Peak Inverse Value
63
 The Full wave rectifier
• Allows uni-directional(one way) current
through the load during the entire 360 degree
of the input cycle
• Whereas, the half wave rectifier allows
current through the load only one half of the
cycle
• The result of full wave rectifier is an output
voltage with twice the frequency of the input
and pulses every half-cycle of the input
 Continued….
• The number of positive alternations that make
up the full wave rectified voltage is twice that
of half wave rectifier
• Average formula is calculated on DC voltmeter
with the formula:-
VAVG= 2VP/π
 Center Tapped Full wave rectifier
• Type of full wave rectifier
• Uses two diodes connected to the secondary
of a center tapped transformer
 Continued….
• During the +ive cycle, D1 is forward biased
and D2 is reverse biased
• During the –ive cycle, D2 is reverse and D1 is
forward biased
 Effects of turn ratio on output voltage
• If the transformer turn ratio is 1, the peak value of
the rectified output voltage equals half the value
of primary input voltage less the barrier potential

Vout  Vp ( primaty) / 2  0.7V

• In order to obtain output voltage with a peak
value equal to the input peak voltage(less the
drop voltage), a step up transformer with turns
ratio n=2 must be used
• In this case, V(sec) is 2V(pri)
 Continued….
• In any case, no matter what the turn ratio is,

Vpout  V (sec) / 2  0.7V

 Peak Inverse Value
• Each diode in the full wave rectifier is
alternatively forward bias and then reverse
bias
• The max reverse voltage that each diode must
hold is the peak secondary voltage(P(sec))

PIV  Vp(sec)  0.7V

Vp(sec)  PIV  0.7V
As, Vp( out)  Vp(sec) / 2  0.7V
 Continued….
• Putting the value of Vp(sec);

2Vp( out)  PIV  0.7V  1.14V

PIV  2Vp( out)  0.7V
 Lecture 7
• Bridge Full wave rectifier operation
• Bridge output voltage
• PIV
• Capacitor-Input filter
• Ripple voltage
• Ripple Factor
73
 Bridge Full wave Rectifier
• Uses four diodes
• When input is +ive, D1 and D2 are forward bias
and conduct current in forward direction
• A voltage is developed across RL that looks like
+ive half of the input cycle
• During this time, D3 and D4 are reverse biased
• When the input cycle is –ive, D3 and D4 are
forward and conduct current in the same
direction through RL
 Continued….
• During the –ive
cycle, D1 and D2
are reverse biased
• Full wave rectified
output appears at
RL as a result of
action
 Bridge Output Voltage
• D1 and D2 are forward Bias during the forward
bias
• Neglecting the drops, the secondary voltage
appears at RL
• The same is true when D3 and D4 are forward
bias during the –ive cycle
Vp ( out)  Vp (sec)
• If these drops are taken into account,
Vp ( out)  Vp (sec)  1.4V
 PIV
• Since, the output voltage is ideally equal to
secondary voltage, i.e.
Vp ( out)  Vp (sec)
PIV  Vp ( out)  Vp (sec)
• If the diode drops are taken into accounts, the
PIV across each reverse biased diode in terms
of Vp(out) is,
Vp ( out)  Vp (sec)  0.7V
 Capacitor-Input Filter
• A half wave rectifier with a capacitor input
filter
• The filter is simply a capacitor connected from
the rectifier output to ground
 Continued….
• During the +ive cycle of the input, the diode is
forward biased, allowing the capacitor to
charge with in 0.7V of input peak
• The capacitor discharges through RL, when the
diode is reverse biased
 Ripple Voltage
• Capacitor quickly charges at the beginning and
slowly discharges through RL after the peak of
the input voltage(when the diode is reverse
biased)

• The variation in the capacitor voltage due to

the charging and discharging is called ripple
voltage
 Ripple Factor
• The effectiveness of the filter is defined as:

r  Vr ( pp) / VDC
Where, Vr(pp)= Ripple peak to peak voltage
VDC= average value of the filtered output

• The ripple factor can be lowered by increasing

the value of filter capacitance or increasing RL
Lectures after Mid
 Lecture 8
• Diode Limiters
• Formula for diode limiters
• Limiter Applications
• Voltage Divider Bias
• Diode Clampers
• Examples
• Voltage Multipliers
 Diode Limiters
• Also called clippers
• Limits or clips the +ive part of the input
voltage, during the forward bias
• As the input goes +ive, the diode becomes
forward bias and conducts current
 Continued….
• Limits or clips the -ive part of the input
voltage, during the reverse bias
• As the input goes -ive, the diode becomes
reverse bias and conducts current
 Formula

• The formula applies

as a voltage divider,
formed by R1 and
RL i.e.

Vout  ( RL / R1  RL ) * V (input)
Experiment
 Limiter Applications
• Many circuits have certain restrictions
on input level to avoid damaging
circuit
• For example, many digital circuits
should not have any input level that
exceeds the power supply voltage
• A few more voltage could damage the
circuit
 Voltage Divider Bias
• The bias voltage
source can be
replaced by a resistive
voltage divider that
derives the desired
bias voltage source
from the dc power
supply i.e.
VBIAS  ( R 3 / R 2  R3)VSUPPLY
 Experiments
• Describe the output voltage waveform for the
diode limiter if V(supply)= 12V, R1= 10K Ω ,
R2= 100Ω, R3=220 Ω with an AC supply of 18V

• How would you change the voltage divider to

limit the output voltage to +6.7 V?
 Diode Clampers
• A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage
• Sometimes known as dc restorer
 Formulas
• For forward bias,
VOUT  Vp( IN )  0.7V

• For reverse bias,

VOUT  Vp( IN )  0.7V

 Voltage Multipliers
• Half wave voltage Doublers

• Full wave Voltage Doublers

• Voltage Tripler

• Voltage Quadrupler
 Half Wave Voltage Doublers
• A voltage doublers is a voltage multiplier with
a multiplication factor of 2

• During the +ive cycle of the secondary voltage,

D1 is forward and D2 is reversed
• C1 is charged to Vp less the diode drop
 Continued….
• During the -ive cycle of the secondary voltage,
D2 is forward and D1 is reversed
• Since C1 can’t be recharged, the peak voltage
of C1 adds to secondary voltage to charge C2
to approx 2Vp
• Therefore;
Vc 2  Vp  Vp  2Vp
Full wave Voltage Doublers
Voltage Tripler
Voltage Quadrupler
 Lecture 8
• Introduction to Zener Diode
• Voltage regulation and limiting
• The Varactor Diode
• LEDS and Photo Diode
• Other Diodes
• Schottky Diodes
 Introduction
The zener diode is a silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier diodes because it
is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a
zener diode is set by carefully controlling the level during manufacture. The basic function
of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across it’s terminals within given limits of
line or load change. Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in
power supplies and other equipment.

This particular Zener circuit will work to maintain 10 V across the load.
 Zener Diodes
A zener diode is much like a normal diode. The exception being is that it is placed in the
circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown. This typical characteristic curve
illustrates the operating range for a zener. Note that it’s forward characteristics are just like
a normal diode.

Volt-ampere characteristic is shown in this Figure with normal operating regions for
rectifier diodes and for zener diodes shown as shaded areas. 4
 Zener Breakdown
Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse
breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener. The avalanche break down
occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener
breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.

Low voltage zeners less than 5V operate in the zener breakdown range. Those
designed to operate more than 5 V operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range.
Zeners are commercially available with voltage breakdowns of 1.8 V to 200 V.
 Breakdown Characteristics
Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic curve. As the reverse
voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR) remains extremely small up to the
“knee” of the curve. The reverse current is also called the zener current, IZ. At this
point, the breakdown effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener
impedance (ZZ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly.
 Zener Equivalent Circuit
Figure (b) represents the practical model of a zener diode, where the zener impedance (ZZ)
is included. Since the actual voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in zener
current (ΔIZ) produces a small change in zener voltage (ΔVZ), as illustrated in Figure (c).

VZ
ZZ 
I Z

Zener diode equivalent circuit models and the characteristic curve illustrating ZZ.
Ex 3-1 A zener diode exhibits a certain change in V Z for a certain change in IZ on
a portion of the linear characteristic curve between IZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure.
What is the zener impedance?

VZ 50 mV
ZZ    10
I Z 5mV
 Zener Regulation with a Variable Load
In this simple illustration of zener regulation circuit, the zener diode will “adjust” its
impedance based on varying input voltages and loads (RL) to be able to maintain its
designated zener voltage. Zener current will increase or decrease directly with voltage
input changes. The zener current will increase or decrease inversely with varying loads.
Again, the zener has a finite range of operation.
 Zener Limiting
Zener diodes can used in ac applications to limit voltage swings to desired levels. Part (a)
shows a zener used to limit the positive peak of a signal voltage to the selected voltage.
When the zener is turned around, as in part (b), the negative peak is limited by zener
action and the positive voltage is limited to + 0.7 V.
 Zener Diode Applications

Zeners can also be used as limiters. The back-to-back zeners in this circuit limit
the output to the breakdown voltage plus one diode drop.

+VZ1 + 0.7 V
D1
What are the maximum positive Vin
0
D2
and negative voltages if the Zener
–VZ1 – 0.7 V
breakdown voltage is 5.6 V?

± 6.3 V

109
 Optical Diodes
The light-emitting diode (LED) emits photons as visible light. It’s purpose is for
indication and other intelligible displays. Various impurities are added during the
doping process to vary the color output.
 Optical Diodes
The seven segment display is an example of LEDs use for display of decimal digits.
 Optical Diodes
The photodiode is used to vary current by the amount of light that strikes it. It is placed in
the circuit in reverse bias. As with most diodes when in reverse bias, no current flows
when in reverse bias, but when light strikes the exposed junction through a tiny window,
reverse current increases proportional to light intensity.
Presentation Topics:
1) Schottky Diodes
2) Tunnel Diodes
3) Laser Diodes
4) Current regulator Diodes
5) Varactor Diodes
 Lecture 9
• Transistors
•Types
•BJT Structure
•BJT Biasing
•Transistor Currents
•DC Bias Circuits
•DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)
•BJT Circuit Analysis
•Examples
 Transistor
• A transistor is a semiconductor device used
to amplify or switch electronic signals
and electrical power.
• It is composed of semiconductor material with at
least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit
• A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current
through another pair of terminals
 Types
• Two basic types of transistors are the bipolar
junction transistor (BJT) and Field-effect
transistor (FET).
•The BJT is used in two broad areas:
• as a linear amplifier to boost or amplify an
electrical signal,
• as an electronic switch.
•The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes
and electrons as current carriers in the transistor
structure.
 BJT Structure
• The BJT has three regions called the emitter,
base, and collector. Between the regions are
junctions as indicated.
• The base is a thin lightly doped region
compared to the heavily doped emitter and
moderately doped collector regions.
 BJT Biasing
• In normal operation, the base-emitter (BE) is
forward- biased and the base-collector (BC) is
reverse-biased.
 Transistor Currents
• Emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector
current (IC) and the base current (IB)
• The direction of conventional current is in the
direction of the arrow on the emitter terminal.

IE  IC  IB
DC Bias Circuits
DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)
• The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector
current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) and is designated as dc
beta(βDC).
• Typical values of βDC range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.
• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter
current (IE) is the dc alpha(αDC).
• The alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in transistor
circuits, range from 0.95 to 0.99
 Example
• Determine the dc current gain βDC and the
emitter current IE for a transistor where IB is
50 mA and IC is 3.65 mA
 BJT Circuit Analysis
• Let, IB: dc base current, IE: dc
emitter current IC: dc collector
current, VBE: dc voltage at base
with respect to emitter, VCB: dc
voltage at collector with
respect to base , VCE: dc voltage
at collector with respect to
emitter
• When the base-emitter
junction is forward-biased, it is
like a forward-biased diode and
has a nominal forward voltage
drop of VBE = 0.7 V
 Continued….
• Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
the voltage across RB is VRB = VBB – VBE
• Also, by Ohm’s law, VRB = IBRB
• Substituting for yields IBRB = VBB - VBE
• Solving for IB, IB =VBB -VBE / RB
• Also, VCE =VCC-ICRC ,
• IC =βDC. IB
• And VCB =VCE-VBE
Example
 Lecture 10
• Introduction
• DC Bias
• DC operating Point
• Linear Operation
• Waveform Distortion
• Voltage-Divider Bias
• Formula’s
• Examples
 Introduction
• As you learned previously, a transistor must be
properly biased in order to operate as an
amplifier
• DC biasing is used to establish fixed dc values
for the transistor currents and voltages called
the dc operating point or quiescent point (Q-
point).
• In this lecture, several types of bias circuits are
discussed
 DC Bias
• Bias establishes the dc operating point (Q-point) for
proper linear operation of an amplifier.
• If an amplifier is not biased with correct dc voltages
on the input and output, it can go into saturation or
cutoff when an input signal is applied
 Continued….
• In part (a), the output signal is an amplified replica
of the input signal except that it is inverted, which
means that it is out of phase with the input.
• Improper biasing can cause distortion in the
output signal, as illustrated in parts (b) and (c).
• Part (b) illustrates limiting of the positive portion
of the output voltage as a result of a Q-point (dc
operating point) being too close to cutoff.
• Part (c) shows limiting of the negative portion of
the output voltage as a result of a dc operating
point being too close to saturation
The DC operating Point
A dc-biased transistor circuit with variable bias voltage
(VBB) for generating the collector characteristic curves
Continued….
 Linear Operation
• Bias establishes the operating
point (Q-point) of a transistor
amplifier; the ac signal moves
above and below moves above
and below this point.
• For this example, the dc base
current is 300 µA. When the
input causes the base current to
vary between 200 µA and 400
µA, the collector current varies
between 20 mA and 40 mA.
• Point A on the load line Figure
corresponds to the positive peak
of the sinusoidal input voltage.
Point B corresponds to the
negative peak, and point Q
corresponds to the zero value of
the sine wave
 Waveform Distortion
• A signal that swings outside the active region will be clipped
• For example, the bias has established a low Q point
• As a result, the signal will be clipped because it is too close to
cutoff.
Example
 Voltage-Divider Bias
• A practical way to establish a Q-point
is to form a voltage divider from VCC.
• R1and R2 are selected to establish
VB.
• Generally, voltage-divider bias
circuits are designed so that the base
current is much smaller than the
current (I2) through R2
• A voltage divider in which the base
current is small compared to the
current in R2 is said to be a stiff
voltage divider
Formula’s
Example # 1
Example # 2
Example # 3
 Lecture 11
• MOSFET
• Basic Structure & Operation
• Symbols & Structure
• Types
• Symbolic Differentiation b/w E-MOSFET & D-MOSFET
• No Gate Voltage
• E-Mode
• D-Mode
• Other Definitions
 MOSFET
• The MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field-
effect transistor) is another category of field-
effect transistor.
• Note that the MOSFET is a uni-polar device. Its
operation depends on only one type of charge,
either electrons or holes, but never both.
• The two basic types of MOSFETs are
enhancement (E) and depletion (D). Of the two
types, the enhancement MOSFET is more widely
used.
 Basic Structure and Principle of
Operation
• Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with
source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals,
the body of the MOSFET is often connected to the
source terminal, making it a three-terminal.
• A metal gate covers the region between source and
drain
• The main advantage of a MOSFET over a regular
transistor is that it requires very little current to turn
on (less than 1mA), while delivering a much higher
current to a load
• Basic Principle- Use of voltage between two terminals
to control the current flowing in the third terminal
 Continued….
• If the MOSFET is an n-channel or n-MOSFET, then
the source and drain are "n+" regions and the
body is a "p" region.
• If the MOSFET is a p-channel or p-MOSFET, then
the source and drain are "p+" regions and the
body is a "n" region.
• The source is named because it is the source of
the charge carriers (electrons for n-channel,
holes for p-channel) that flow through the
channel
• The drain is where the charge carriers leave the
channel.
 Symbols and structure

D D

B B
G G

S S

p Channel MOSFET n Channel MOSFET

 Continued….
• The source and drain regions are identical
• It is the applied voltages which determine which n-type
region provides the electrons and becomes the source, while
the other n-type region collects the electrons and becomes
the drain
• The flow of electrons from the source to the drain is
controlled by the voltage applied to the gate.
• Once positive voltage is provided, the electrons form a
conducting channel between the source and the drain,
called the inversion layer.
• The net result is that the current between drain and
source is controlled by the voltage which is applied to the
gate.
 Types
• The two types of MOSFETs are depletion type
and enhancement type, and each has a N/P–
channel type.
• The enhancement type is normally off, which
means that the drain-to-source current
increases as the voltage at the gate increases.
• No current flows when no voltage is supplied
at the gate
• The depletion type is normally on
Symbolic differentiation b/w
E-MOSFET & D-MOSFET
Continued….
 No Gate Voltage
• With no bias voltage applied to the gate, two
back to back diodes exists in series from drain
and source
• One diode is formed by pn-junction between
p-substrate and the drain while the other
between p-substrate and the source
• These diode prevent current conduction from
drain to source and have a high resistance of
10^12Ω
 Enhancement Mode
• As its name indicates, this MOSFET operates only in the enhancement
mode and has no depletion mode.
• An enhancement NMOS is typically in cut-off with a positive
threshold voltage of ~0.7V. So, if your gate-source voltage is less than
your positive threshold voltage your transistor will be off.
• These devices are off at zero gate–source voltage. It does not conduct
when the gate-source voltage VGS=0. This is the reason that it is called
normally-off MOSFET.
• It operates with large positive gate voltage in N-channel E-MOSFET
• Can be turned on by pulling the gate voltage
i. Either higher than the source voltage, for NMOS
ii. Lower than the source voltage, for PMOS.
• In most circuits, this means pulling an enhancement-mode MOSFET's
gate voltage towards its drain voltage turns it ON.
 Depletion Mode
• In a depletion-mode MOSFET, the device is normally ON at zero
gate–source voltage.
• If you have a depletion NMOS, your transistor is typically on. This
is because the threshold voltage for a depletion NMOS is
negative.
• In the N channel device, the gate is made negative with respect
to the source, which has the effect of creating a depletion area,
free from charge carriers. This restricts the depth of the
conducting channel, so increasing channel resistance and
reducing current flow through the device.
• For N-type depletion-load devices, the threshold voltage might
be about –3 V, so it could be turned off by pulling the gate 3 V
negative
• In PMOS, the polarities are reversed.
• Depletion MOSFET logic operations are opposite to enhancement
type of MOSFETs.
 Other Definitions
• Enhancement Mode
A means of operating FETs in which increasing the
magnitude of gate bias increases the current.
OR
N-MOSFET that can conduct when VGS > 0V and can't
conduct when VGS = 0V is called enhancement mode
• Depletion Mode
A means of operating FETs in which increasing the
magnitude of the gate bias decreases the current.
OR
N-MOSFET that conduct when VGS = 0V is called
depletion mode