ANATOMY OF THE EYE

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
VISUAL FUNCTIONS
• The eyeball consists of
three layers (coats):
outer (fibrous) coat,
middle (vascular) coat
and inner (nervous) coat.
These coats surround
internal transparent
structures of the eye.
• The fibrous layer is
made up of a posterior,
opaque part, the sclera,
and an anterior,
transparent part, the
cornea.
• The transparent cornea forms the anterior
one-sixth of the eyeball. It is the main
structure responsible for the refraction of
light. It's refractive power is about 40,OD.
• The cornea is avascular and devoid of
lymphatic drainage.
• Nerve supply of the cornea is by nerve
fibers, which are derived from the
ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve
• The sclerocomeal junction is called "the
limbus".
• Microscopically, the
cornea consist of five
layers. From front to
back they are: 1) the
epithelium, 2) the
Bowman's layer
(membrane), 3) the
substantia propria, 4)
Descemet's membrane
and 5) the
endothelium.
• The sclera forms the
posterior five-sixths of
the eyeball and is
opaque. In the adult
the sclera is white
• The vascular coat, or
uveal tract, consists ,
from back to front, of
the choroid, the ciliary
body and the iris.
• The iris is a thin pigmented diaphragm with a
central apertura, the pupil. The periphery of the
iris is called the ciliary margin, or root of the iris.
The pupil is surrounded by the pupillary margin
of the iris. The color of the iris is produced by the
pigment in the melanocytes. The function of the
iris is to control the amount of light entering the
eye. The sphincter pupillae muscle is located in the
pupillary zone of the iris. The nerve supply of the
sphincter pupillae is from the parasympathetic
fibers in the short ciliary nerves. The nerve supply
of the dilator pupillae is from the postgangi ionic
fibers of the superior cervical sympathetic
ganglion.
• The ciliary body is
continuous posteriorly with
the choroid and anteriorly
with the peripheral margin
of the iris. It is a complete
ring that runs around the
inside of the anterior
sclera. The ciliary body
includes the ciliary muscle.
It is the contraction of the
ciliary muscle, that pulls
the ciliary body forward in
accomodation. It is
innervated by the
parasympathetic fibers
derived from the
oculomotor nerve.
• Functions of the ciliary body:
• 1. The process of accomodation
• 2. The anterior surface of the ciliary processes
produces the aqueous humour.
• The choroid is a thin, soft, brown coat lining
the inner surface of the sclera. The principal
function of the choroid is to nourish with its
blood vessels the outer layers of the retina
• The nervous coat, or
retina, is the internal
layer of the eyeball.
Traditionally, based on
light microscopic
findings, the whole retina
was said to be composed
of 10 layers. These are
from outside inwards, as
follow : 1) the pigment
epithelium; 2) the rods
and cones; 3) the external
limiting membrane; 4)
the outer nuclear layer;
• 5) the outer plexiform
layer; 6) the inner
nuclear layer; 7) the
inner plexiform layer;
8) the ganglion cells; 9)
the nerve fiber layer;
10) the internal
limiting membrane.
There are two types of
photoreceptors, the
rods and the cones.
• The rods are mainly responsible for vision
in dim light, while cones are adapted to
bright light and can resolve fine details and
colour vision.
• The macula lutea is an oval yellowish area
at the center of the posterior part of the
retina. It is at the optic disc that the optic
nerve fibers exit the eye.
• Chambers of the eyeball.
• The eye contains two chambers: the anterior
chamber and the posterior chamber.
• The anterior chamber of the eyeball is a small
cavity lying behind the cornea and in front of the
iris. It is filled with aqueous humour.
• The posterior chamber is bounded anteriorly by
the iris, peripherally by the ciliary processes and
posteriorly by the lens and the zonule. The
posterior chamber is filled with aqueous humour
and communicates through the pupil with the
anterior chamber.
• The aqueous
humour is a clear
fluid that fills the
both chambers of
the eyeball. It is
formed by the
ciliary processes of
the ciliary body in
the posterior
chamber.
• The lens is a
transparent,
biconvex structure
situated behind the
iris and the pupil
and in front of the
vitreous body.
• The vitreous body
fills the eyeball
behind the lens.
• The eyeball is
surrounded within the
orbital cavity by
orbital fat. The six
extraocular muscles of
the orbit that produce
eye movements are:
the superior, inferior,
medial and lateral
rectus muscles and the
superior and inferior
oblique muscles.
• The superior, inferior, medial rectus
muscles and inferior oblique muscles are
supplied by the oculomotor nerve. Lateral
rectus muscle is supplied by the abducent
nerve and the superior oblique muscle is
supplied by trochlear nerve.
• The ocular appendages include the
eyebrows, the eyelids, conjunctiva and
lacrimal apparatus.
• From superficial to
deep each eyelid
consist of skin,
subcutaneous tissue,
muscle fibers of the
orbicularis oculi,
orbital septum and
conjunctiva. Nerve
supply of the
orbicularis oculi
muscle is by branches
of the facial nerve.
• The conjunctiva is a thin
mucous membrane that
lines the eyelids and is
reflected at the superior
and inferior fornices onto
the anterior surface of the
eyeball.
• The lacrimal apparatus
consists of the lacrimal
gland, which secretes
tears; the lacrimal lake, the
lacrimal canaliculi, the
lacrimal sac and the
nasolacrimal duct, which
carries the tears into the
nasal cavity. (рис.3.1
толст)
• The eye and the orbital contents receive
their main arterial supply from the
ophthalmic artery. The venous blood of
the orbit is drained by the superior and
inferior ophthalmic veins. The veins of
the orbit have no valves.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VISUAL
FUNCTIONS
• The retina, the optic nerve, the optic
chiasm, the optic tracts, the lateral
geniculate bodies, the optic radiations, and
the visual cortical areas make up the visual
pathway. This entire pathway may be
regarded as part of the central nervous
system, and during development it has
extended forward into the orbital cavities of
the skull.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VISUAL
FUNCTIONS
• The rods and cones serve as sensory nerve
endings for visual sensation. Light falling
upon the retina causes two essential
reactions, photochemical and electrical. The
photochemical reaction initiates the visual
sensation in the form of changes in electrical
potential which are transmitted through the
bipolar cells to the ganglion cell and along
the fibres of the optic nerve to the brain.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VISUAL
FUNCTIONS
• The rods are mainly responsible for vision in
dim light (scotopic vision) and produce images
consisting of varying shades of black and
white, while the cones are adapted to bright
light (photopic vision) and can resolve fine
details and colour vision.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VISUAL
FUNCTIONS
• The density of the rods and cones varies in
different parts of the retina. The rods are
absent at the fovea, rising rapidly in numbers
toward the periphery. The cones, on the other
hand, are most dense at the fovea and the
numbers decrease at the periphery.
 Functions of the eye
• Light sense is the ability to see light of
different intensities. The rods at the periphery
are more sensitive to light than the cones.
Light sense is a function of the rods.
• Visual acuity is function of central retinal
sections. Visual acuity is the ability of the eye
to see two distant points separately.
 Functions of the eye
• Peripheral vision is the ability of the eye
fixed at a point to observe objects around that
point three-dimensionally. This is the function
of the rods.
• Binocular vision is the ability of the eye to
observe objects with proper spatial orientation,
stereoscopically and in relief.
 Functions of the eye
• Colour vision (colour sense). It is the ability
of the eye to discriminate between different
colours excited by light of different
wavelength. It is a function of cones and thus
better appreciated in photopic vision. Cones
perform this function by three different types
of pigments which absorb red, green and blue
wavelengths of light.
 Functions of the eye
• All other colours are combinations of these
primary colours in different proportions. In
dim light (scotopic vision) all colours are seen
as grey. An individual with normal colour
vision is known as "trichromate". In colour
blindness ability to appreciate one or more
primary colour is either defective (anomalous)
or absent (anopia). It may be congenital or
aquired.