Piezoresistive Sensors -

Principles, Materials, Fabrication and Applications

Chang Liu
Micro Actuators, Sensors, Systems Group
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Definition of Piezoresistive Sensing

• Also called strain sensors or strain gauges.

• A strain gauge is a device used to measure how much a
component distorts under loading.
• The electrical resistance of a sensing material changes as a result
of applied strains.

• A strain gauge is a conductor or semiconductor material that can

be directly fabricated on the sensor itself or bonded with the
sensor.
• In macroscopic systems, such as strain sensors in machine tools,
aircraft, strain gauges are most likely bonded onto parts.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Stress-Strain Relation

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UIUC
 Physical Causes of Piezoresistivity
• Change of relative dimensions, as the resistance is related to
length and cross-sectional area (local).
l
R dR 

dL 
L
d 
L
dA
A A A A2

dR dL d dA
  
R L  A

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Why Electrical Conductivity Change With
Stress/Strain?
• Change of electrical conductivity and resistivity as a result of
crystal lattice deformation.
• Strain causes the shape of energy band curves to change,
therefore changing the effective mass, m*. Therefore electrical
conductivity s changes. 2
h
m* 
d 2 E / dk 2
qt
s
m*

Crystal bandgap structure MASS

Chang Liu
UIUC
 Basic Formula for Describing Piezoresistivity

• G is called Gauge Factor of a piezoresistor. It determines the

amplification factor between strain and resistance change.

R L
G
R L
R stresss  E
R
G R 
l R
l

Material Gauge factor

Metal foil 1-5
Semiconductor (crystal) 80-150
Diffused semiconductor 10-200

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Chang Liu Why the big difference between materials? UIUC
 Applications at Macroscale
• Spot-weldable strain gauges are used with
strain gauge sensors and a vibrating wire
indicator or data logger to monitor strain in
steel members. Typical applications include:
• Monitoring structural members of buildings
and bridges during and after construction.
• Determining load changes on ground anchors
and other post-tensioned support systems.
• Monitoring load in strutting systems for deep
excavations.
• Measuring strain in tunnel linings and supports.
• Monitoring areas of concentrated stress in
pipelines.
• Monitoring distribution of load in pile tests.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Metal Strain Gauge
• For metals, the resistivity is not
changed significantly by the stress. The
gauge factor is believed to be
contributed by the change of
dimensions. These may be made from
thin wires or metal films that may be
directly fabricated on top of micro
structures. Typical strain gauge pattern
is shown in the following figure. Thin
film strain gauges are typically
fabricated on top of flexible plastic
substrates and glued to surfaces.
• etched foil gauges
– These strain gauges consist of a
conduction path etched onto metal clad
plastic film. The strain gauges are
designed to be glued, using very special
procedures onto the component to be
tested. When the component stretches,
the strain gauge will also stretch as will
the etched conduction path.

An interactive guide can be found at

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Chang Liu http://www.measurementsgroup.com/guide/index.htm UIUC
 Strain gauge selection and use
Metal alloys
• Constantan, a Nickel-Cu alloy:
– Of all modern strain gage alloys,
constantan is the oldest, and still the
most widely used.
– constantan tends to exhibit a continuous
drift at temperatures above +150 deg F
(+65 deg C);

• Nickel-Chrominum alloy

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Two Primary Classes of Piezo-resistor
Configuration

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UIUC
 Semiconductor Strain Gauge
• The very first semiconductor strain gauge used a doped silicon
strip attached to a membrane of another material.
• In semiconductor strain gauges, the piezoresistive effect is very
large, leading to much higher G.
• P-type silicon has a G up to 200 and n-type has a negative G of
down to -140.
• Strain gauges can be locally fabricated in bulk silicon through
ion implantation or diffusion

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Gauge factor of polysilicon with doping

• Gauge factor is a function of doping material or doping

concentration.
• Because grains are randomly oriented, gauge factor is not
sensitive to orientation.

N type P type
Phosphorous doped Si Boron doped Si
-22 30
-20 28
-18 26
-16 24
-14 22
-12 20
-10 18
-8 16
-8 14
-6 12
-4 10
-2 8

1019 1020 1021 1019 1020 1021

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UIUC
 MASS
Chang Liu
UIUC
 Why Use Semiconductor Strain Gauge

• Higher G than metal alloy strain gauges

• Easily fabricated with controlled performance specifications
using precise ion implantation and diffusion
• Easily integratable with silicon, a material used for sensors and
signal processing.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Merit of Piezoresistive Sensors Vs Capacitive

• Capacitive sensing is perhaps the most dominant position-

sensing technique for microfabricated sensors. However, there
are a number of limitations imposed on capacitive sensors.
• The detection of position is constrained to small vertical movement
(parallel plate) and horizontal movement (transverse or lateral comb
drives).
• The area of overlapped electrodes must be reasonably large (as a rule
of thumb, tens of mm2). If the overlap area is small and the vertical
displacement is large, capacitive sensors are not suitable.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Single Crystal Silicon Vs. Polycrystal
• Single Crystal Silicon: Uniform crystal orientation throughout
the entire material.
– Method of growth: heat melt (bulk); epitaxy (thin film)
• Polycrystal silicon: crystal orientation exist with in individual
grains which are separated by grain boundaries.
– Methods of growth: low pressure chemical vapor deposition;
sputtering (like a metal).

Chang Liu Single crystal Polycrystal MASS

UIUC
 The piezoresistive coefficients

• Ohm’s law in matrix form

• The relation between changes of resistivity and the applied

stress and strain

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 Piezoresistivity Components

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 Example

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 Methods for Compensating Temperature Effect

• Doped silicon strain sensors are also sensitive to temperature.

In order to isolate the effect of temperature and strain, it is
important to compensate for the temperature effect.
• Common technique: Use a reference resistor which is subject to
the same temperature but not the strain. The difference of signal
between these two sensors give overall effect due to strain.

• Second technique: Wheatstone bridge

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Chang Liu
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 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit -
Transforming resistance change to voltage change

Common configuration.
Rs  R  R

 R2 R4 
Vout    Vin
 1
R  R2 R3  R4 

 R R 
Vout    Vin 
 R  ( R   R ) 2 R 
  R / 2 
 R  Vout   Vin
 (R  )   2 R  R 
 R 1 R
  Vin    2 Vin
 2 R  R 2   2 R  R 2( R  
) 
R Temperature in-sensitive!!

 2 
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Chang Liu
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 Strain Gauge Made of Single Crystal Silicon
- A Pressure Sensor

• Process
• Etch backside to form
diaphragm with controlled
thickness.
• Silicon is selectively doped
in the region where stress is
greatest.
• Difference of pressure
across the diaphragm will
cause stress concentration.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Stress Analysis and Sensor Placement

• Sensor placement in the highest stress region.

displacement Stress

 4w  4w  4w p
2 2 2  4 
x 4 x y y D
Differential eq.
For displacement.
 
 2mx  2ny 
w   amn 1  cos 1  cos 
m 1 n 1  a  b 

4 2t E    2 2mx 2ny 2mx 2ny 

s x ( x, y)   2  mn 
a 1  m 2 m1 n1
a m cos(
a
)  mn 2
cos(
a
)  ( m 2
 mn 2
) cos(
a
)(
a 

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Pressure Sensor Based On Polysilicon
• Sensors placed on edges (highest tensile stress) and center
(highest compressive stress).

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UIUC
 Fabrication Process

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 Fabrication Process (Continued)

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 MASS
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 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

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UIUC
 Condition for Mechanical Equilibrium

• Total force on a given mechanical member is zero.

• Total moment on a given mechanical member is zero.

Tensile
Compressive

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 MASS
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 Relationship between maximum stress and applied
force

• The stress within the cross-section provide counter moment

(torque) to balance the torque created by the applied force.
• The magnitude of the torque is force times the length of arm, l.
• Therefore M=Fl.
du y y 1 M
s  
dx ds 
 y/   y" x
 EI
t Mt
smax   ( y  ) 
2 2 EI

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UIUC
 Example 6.2

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 MASS
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 Good vs. Bad Designs

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 • When one tried to bend a cantilever beam, the failure always
occurs at the anchored end and the surface of the beam. Why?

• Because the longitudinal stress is the greatest at that point.

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 Comments on Mechanical Failure

• Two failure modes

– Fracture
• if the strain in the material exceed the fracture strain, the material will
undergo catastrophic failure due to fracture.
• In design, it is important to not only design the mechanical structure
accurately but also to leave safety margins.

– Fatigue
• If repeated cycle of force is applied to a mechanical member, with the
induced strain much lower than that of the fracture strain, the member
may failure after repeated cycles.
• Mechanism: microscopic defects (bubbles, dislocations) amplifies
over time and causes stress concentration (re-distribution of stress).
The defects are often hidden underneath the surface of the material.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Stress-Strain Curve

• Silicon is a strong material, not a tough material.

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 Case 6.1: Analysis of Accelerometer
• Acceleration induced force F, F=ma.
• The force induces stress at the fixed end of the cantilever beam.
• The stress is detected by chance in resistance.

Assumptions
• assume entire resistance is
concentrated at the
anchor;
• for moment of inertia at
the end, ignore the
thickness of the resistor.
• Assume the stress on the
resistor is the maximum
value.
• The proof mass is rigid. It
does not bend because of
the significant thickness
and width.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Analysis of Sensitivity
• Under a given a, the force has a magnitude F  m  a
L
• The moment applied at the fixed end of the beam is M  F (l  )
2

• Therefore the maximum strain, which is the strain experienced

by the resistor, is
 L
F  l  t 6 F (l  L )t
 
Mt 2
 max  3
 3
2
2 EI Ewt Ewt
6
• The strain is applied in the longitudinal direction of the resistor.
Assuming the gauge factor is G, the change in resistance is

L  L 
6GF (l  )  6Gm(l  ) 
R 2  2 a
 G   max 
Ewt 2  Ewt 
2
R
 
 
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 Stress state analysis example

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Stress state analysis example

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Chang Liu
UIUC