Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Contents
Composition of air Constant pressure
Atmospheric pressure Constant volume
Industrial compressed air General gas law
Pressure Adiabatic compression
Pressure units Water in compressed air
Pressure and force Low temperature drying
The gas laws Flow of compressed air
Constant temperature Air quality
3
Atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric
pressure is caused
by the weight of air
above us
It gets less as we
climb a mountain,
more as we descend
into a mine
The pressure value is
also influenced by
changing weather
conditions
4
Standard Atmosphere
A standard atmosphere is defined by
The International Civil Aviation Organisation.
The pressure and temperature at sea level is
1013.25 milli bar absolute and 288 K (15OC)
1013.25 m bar
5
ISO Atmospheres
ISO Recommendation R 554
Standard Atmospheres for conditioning and/or testing of
material, components or equipment
20OC, 65% RH, 860 to 1060 mbar
6
Atmospheric pressure
We see values of
atmospheric 1015 mb
pressure on a
weather map 1012 mb
7
Mercury barometer
Atmospheric pressure
can be measured as the
height of a liquid column
in a vacuum
760 mm Hg = 1013.9
millibar approximately 760 mm Hg
A water barometer tube
would be over 10 metres
long. Hg = 13.6 times the
density of H2O
For vacuum measurement
1 mm Hg = 1 Torr
760 Torr = nil vacuum
0 Torr = full vacuum
8
Atmosphere and vacuum
The power of
atmospheric
pressure is apparent
in industry where
pick and place
suction cups and
vacuum forming
machines are used
Air is removed from
one side allowing
atmospheric
pressure on the other
to do the work
9
Industrial compressed air
17 16
Pressures are in “bar g” 16 15
gauge pressure ( the 15 14 Extended
value above atmosphere) 14 13 Industrial
10
Pressure
1 bar = 100000 N/m2 For measuring lower
(Newtons per square pressures the millibar
metre) (mbar) is used
1 bar = 10 N/cm2 1000 mbar = 1 bar
For measurements in
pounds per square
inch (psi)
1 psi = 68.95mbar
14.5 psi = 1bar
11
Pressure units
There are many units of pressure measurement.
Some of these and their equivalents are listed
below.
1 bar = 100000 N/m2
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 bar = 14.50 psi
1 bar = 10197 kgf/m2
1 mm Hg = 1.334 mbar approx.
1 mm H2O = 0.0979 mbar approx.
1 Torr = 1mmHg abs (for vacuum)
13
Pressure and force
Compressed air exerts a
force of constant value to
every internal contact
surface of the pressure
containing equipment.
Liquid in a vessel will be
pressurised and transmit
this force
For every bar of gauge
pressure, 10 Newtons are
exerted uniformly over
each square centimetre.
14
Pressure and force
D mm
The thrust developed by a
piston due to air pressure
is the effective area P bar
multiplied by the pressure
Thrust =
p D2 P
Newtons
40
Where
D = The bore of a cylinder in mm
P = The pressure in bar.
We require an answer in Newtons
1bar = 100000 N/m2
D2 is therefore divided by 1000000 to bring
it to m2 and P is multiplied by 100000 to
bring it to N/m2. The result is a division
by 10 shown in the product 40 above
15
Pressure and force
The force contained by a
cylinder barrel is the
projected area multiplied l
by the pressure
Force = D . l . P Newtons
10
Where
D = the cylinder bore mm
l = length of pressurised chamber mm
P = the pressure in bar 16
Pressure and force
If both ports of a double
acting cylinder are
connected to the same
pressure source, the
cylinder will move out
due to the difference in
areas either side of the
piston
If a through rod cylinder
is applied in this way it
will be in balance and not
move in either direction
17
Pressure and force
In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures
P1 P2
18
Pressure and force
In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures
P2 P1
19
Pressure and force
In a balanced spool valve the pressure acting at any port
will not cause the spool to move because the areas to the
left and right are equal and will produce equal and
opposite forces
P1 and P2 are the supply and exhaust pressures
P1 P2
20
The gas laws
21
The gas laws
For any given mass of air the variable properties are
pressure, volume and temperature.
By assuming one of the three variables to be held at a
constant value, we will look at the relationship between the
other two for each case
Constant pressure
V
= constant
T
P
Constant volume = constant
T
22
Constant Temperature
23
Constant temperature
Pressure P
Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2
temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed
P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
24
Constant temperature
Pressure P
Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2
temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed
P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
25
Constant temperature
Pressure P
Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2
temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed
P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
26
Constant temperature
Pressure P
Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2
temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed
P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
27
Constant temperature
Pressure P
Boyle’s law states: the bar absolute
product of absolute 16
pressure and volume of a 14
given mass of gas 12
remains constant if the 10
temperature of the gas 8
remains constant. 6
This process is called 4
isothermal (constant 2
temperature). It must be 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
slow enough for heat to
flow out of and in to the
air as it is compressed
P1.V1 = P2.V2 = constant
and expanded.
28
Constant Pressure
29
Constant pressure
Temperature
Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
30
Constant pressure
Temperature
Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
366.25K
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
Assuming no friction a 20
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40
31
Constant pressure
Temperature
Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
Assuming no friction a 20
volume will change to 0
maintain constant -20
pressure. -40
219.75K
From an ambient of 20oC -60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
a change of 73.25oC will
produce a 25% change of
volume. V1 V2
= =c
0o Celsius = 273K T1(K) T2(K)
32
Constant pressure
Temperature
Charles’ law states: for a Celsius
given mass of gas at 100
366.25K
constant pressure the 80
volume is proportional to 60
the absolute temperature. 40
33
Constant volume
34
Constant volume
Temperature
From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the 0 4
6
8
10
12
0 bar 16
35
Constant volume
Temperature
From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the 0 4
6
8
10
12
0 bar 16
36
Constant volume
Temperature
From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the 0 4
6
8
10
12
0 bar 16
37
Constant volume
Temperature
From Boyle’s law and Celsius
Charles’ law we can also 100
see that if the volume of a 80
given mass of air were to 60
be kept at a constant 40
value, the pressure will be 20
proportional to the 0 4
6
8
10
12
0 bar 16
38
The general gas law
The general gas law is a combination of Boyle’s
law and Charles’ law where pressure, volume
and temperature may all vary between states of a
given mass of gas but their relationship result in
a constant value.
P1 .V1 P2 .V2
= = constant
T1 T2
39
Adiabatic and polytropic
compression
40
Adiabatic compression
In theory, when a volume For adiabatic
of air is compressed compression and
instantly, the process is expansion
adiabatic (there is no time P V n= c
to dissipate heat through for air n = 1.4
the walls of the cylinder)
In the cylinder of an air
compressor the process
16 PV 1. 4 = c is fast but some heat will
14 adiabatic
be lost through the
12 PV 1. 2 = c cylinder walls therefore
10 polytropic
bar a the value of n will be less
8 PV = c
6 isothermal
1.3 approximately for a
4
high speed compressor
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume
41
Polytropic compression
In practice such as in a shock absorbing application there
will be some heat loss during compression
The compression characteristic will be somewhere
between adiabatic and isothermal
The value of n will be less than 1.4 dependent on the rate
of compression. Typically PV 1.2 = c can be used but is
applicable only during the process
42
Water in compressed air
43
Water in compressed air
When large quantities of
air are compressed,
noticeable amounts of
water are formed
The natural moisture
fully vapour contained in the
saturated atmosphere is squeezed
air out like wringing out a
damp sponge
The air will still be fully
saturated (100% RH)
within the receiver
Condensate
Drain
44
Water in compressed air
The amount of water vapour contained in a sample of the
atmosphere is measured as relative humidity %RH. This
percentage is the proportion of the maximum amount that
can be held at the prevailing temperature.
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
At 20o Celsius
20
100% RH = 17.4 g/m3
50% RH = 8.7 g/m3
0
25% RH = 4.35 g/m3
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
45
Water in compressed air
The illustration shows four cubes each representing 1
cubic metre of atmospheric air at 20oC. Each of these
volumes are at a relative humidity of 50% (50%RH). This
means that they actually contain 8.7 grams of water
vapour, half of the maximum possible 17.4 grams
46
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
47
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
48
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
49
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
50
Water in compressed air
When the compressor squashes these four cubic metres
to form one cubic metre there will be 4 times 8.7 grams,
but only two of them can be held as a vapour in the new 1
cubic metre space. The other two have to condense out as
water droplets
51
Water in compressed air
4 cubic metres at 50%RH and
1000 mbar atmospheric pressure
contained in the space of 1 cubic
metre produce a pressure of 3 bar
gauge
17.4 grams of water remain as a
vapour producing 100% RH
(relative humidity) and 17.4 grams
condense to liquid water
This is a continuous process, so
once the gauge pressure is over 1
bar, every time a cubic metre of
air is compressed, and added to
the contained 1 cubic metre, a
further 8.7 grams of water are
condensed 52
Low temperature drying
53
Low temperature drier
Humid air enters the first Humid air in
heat exchanger where it
is cooled by the dry air
going out
Dry air out
The air enters the second
heat exchanger where it
is refrigerated
The condensate is
collected and drained
away
As the dry refrigerated air M Drain
leaves it is warmed by the
incoming humid air Refrigeration
plant
54
Low temperature drying
If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
20
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
55
Low temperature drying
If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
20
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
56
Low temperature drying
If 1 cubic metre of fully saturated compressed air ( 100 %
RH ) is cooled to just above freezing point, approximately
75% of the vapour content will be condensed out. When it
is warmed back to 20OC it will be dried to nearly 25% RH
25% RH 50% RH 100% RH
40
Temperature Celsius
20
-20
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Grams of water vapour / cubic metre of air g/m3
57
Flow of compressed air
58
Flow units
Flow is measured as a 1 cubic foot
volume of free air per unit 1 litre or
of time cubic decimetre
Popular units are :
Litres or cubic
decimetres per second
l/s or dm3/s
Cubic metres per minute
m3/m
Standard cubic feet per
minute (same as cubic
feet of free air) scfm
1 m3/m = 35.31 scfm
1 dm3/s = 2.1 scfm
1 scfm = 0.472 l/s 1 cubic metre
1 scfm = 0.0283 m3/min or 1000 dm3
59
Free air flow
The space between the Actual volume of 1 litre
bars represents the actual of free air at pressure
volume in the pipe 0 1 litre
occupied by 1 litre of free 1bar a
1/
air at the respective 2
absolute pressures. 2bar a
Flow takes place as the 1/
4
result of a pressure
4bar a
differential, at 1bar
1/
absolute (0 bar gauge) 8
P2 or more 1.894 0
0 5 10 15 20
time
When exhausting air from 9
a reservoir at high 8
pressure to atmosphere 7
P2 bar 6
the flow will be constant absolute 5
1/ P
2 1
until P1 is less than 2 P2 4 P1 is 9 bar a
3 source to
When charging a 2 reservoir
1 atm
reservoir the flow will be 0
constant until P2 is 1/2 P1 0 5 10 15 20
61
Flow through valves
Valve flow performance is usually indicated by a flow
factor of some kind, such as “C”, “b”, “Cv”, “Kv” and
others.
The most accurate way of determining the performance of
a pneumatic valve is through its values of “C”
(conductance) and “b” (critical pressure ratio). These
figures are determined by testing the valve to ISO 6358
For a range of steady source
pressures P1 the pressure P1 P2
P2 is plotted against the
flow through the valve until
it reaches a maximum
The result is a set of curves
showing the flow characteristics
of the valve
62
Flow through valves
From these curves the critical pressure ratio “b” can be
found. “b” represents the ratio of P2 to P1 at which the flow
velocity goes sonic. Also the conductance“C”at this point
which represents the flow “dm³/ second / bar absolute”
2
P2
-b
P1
Q = C P1 1-
1-b
Where :
P1 = upstream pressure bar
P2 = downstream pressure bar
C = conductance dm3/s/bar a
b = critical pressure ratio
Q = flow dm3/s 64
Air Quality
65
Air filtration quality
ISO 8573-1 Compressed An air quality class is
air for general use stated as three air quality
Part 1 Contaminants and numbers e.g. 1.7.1
quality classes solids 0.1 µm max
and 0.1 mg/m 3 max
Allowable levels of
contamination are given a water not specified
quality class number 0.01 mg/m3 max
Specified according to This is the filtration class
the levels of these resulting from a Norgren
contaminants: Ultraire Filter
solid particles To obtain pressure dew
water points that are low, also
oil use an air drier
66
Compressed air quality
ISO 8573-1
Class Solids Water Oil
particle concentration Max Pressure concentration
size max maximum Dew point OC mg/m3
µm mg/m3
1 0.1 0.1 – 70 0.01
2 1 1 – 40 0.1
3 5 5 – 20 1
4 15 8 +3 5
5 40 10 +7 25
6 - - + 10 -
7 - - Not Specified -
Pressure dew point is the temperature to
which compressed air must be cooled before
water vapour in the air starts to condense into
water particles 67
End
68
69
Pressure units
Standard Atmosphere = 1.01325 bar abs
Technical Atmosphere = 0.98100 bar abs
1 mm Hg = 1.334mbar approx.
1 mm H2O = 0.0979 mbar approx.
1 kPa = 10.0 mbar
1 MPa = 10 bar
1 kgf/cm2 = 981 mbar
1 N/m2 = 0.01 mbar
1 Torr = 1mmHg abs (for vacuum)
70
Pressure units
1 bar = 100000 N/m2
1 bar = 1000000 dyn/cm2
1 bar = 10197 kgf/m2
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 bar = 14.50 psi
1 bar = 0.98690 standard atmospheres
71
Pressure units
1 dyn/cm2 = 0.001mbar
1 psi = 68.95mbar
Standard atmosphere = 14.7 psi approx.
Standard atmosphere = 760 Torr approx.
1 inch Hg = 33.8 mbar approx.
1 inch H2O = 2.49mbar approx.
100 mbar is about as hard as the average person
can blow
72
Temperature conversion
393 120
240 The absolute temperature
220 scale is measured in
373 100
200 degrees Kelvin OK
180
353 80 On the Celsius scale 0OC
160 and 100OC are the
333 140 60 freezing and boiling
120 points for water
313 100 40 OK = OC + 273.15
80
293 20
The Fahrenheit and
60
Celsius scales coincide at
273
40
0 - 40O
20 OF = OC. 9/ + 32
5
253 0 -20
-20
233 -40 -40
OK OF OC
73
Click the arrow to return
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