Fluid Dynamics

The Fluid dynamics is the study of fluid

motion with the forces causing the flow.
 Equations of Motion
Newton’s Second law of motion
Fx = m × ax
In the fluid flow the following forces are present

•Fg→ Gravity force

•Fp → The Pressure force
•Fv→ Force due to viscosity
•Ft → Force due turbulence
•Fc→ Force due to compressibility

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x

 Equations of Motion
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x → Reynold’s Equation of motion

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x → Navier-Stokes Equation

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x → Euler’s Equation of motion

Different types of Heads or Energies of a liquid in motion

Potential Head or Potential Energy

Velocity Head or Kinetic Energy

Pressure Head or Pressure Energy

Total energy = mgz + ½ mv2 + (p × volume) Nm/kg of liquid

v2 + p
Total head = z + m of liquid
2g ρg
 Converting Energy into Head of liquid
Total head = Energy per unit weight

mgz
Potential Head = Potential Energy = = z m of liquid
Weight mg

Kinetic Energy ½ m v2 v2
Velocity Head = = = m of liquid
Weight mg 2g

Pressure Energy p × (m/ρ) p

Pressure Head = = = m of liquid
Weight mg ρg
Euler’s Equation of Motion
S
 ∂p 
 p + ds dA
 ∂s 

ds

p dA

ρ g dA ds
 Euler’s Equation of Motion
Fs = m × as
 ∂p 
p dA −  p + ds dA − ρ g dA ds cosθ
 ∂s 
= ρ dA ds × aS

Now
dv
aS = Where v is the function of S & t
dt
∂ v ds ∂ v ∂v ∂v
= + = v+ For steady flow
∂ s dt ∂ t ∂s ∂t ∂v
=0
∂t
v∂ v
∴ aS =
∂s

∂p v∂ v
− ds dA − ρ g dA ds cosθ = ρ dA ds ×
∂s ∂s
 Euler’s Equation of Motion
∂p v∂ v
− ds dA − ρ g dA ds cosθ = ρ dA ds ×
∂s ∂s
Divide both sides by ρ dA ds

∂p v∂v
− − g cosθ =
ρ ∂s ∂s
or 1 ∂p v∂v
+ g cosθ + =0 ds θ dz
ρ ∂s ∂s
dz
cosθ =
ds
1 ∂p dz v∂ v
+g + =0
ρ ∂s ds ∂s

or ∂p
+ g dz + v dv = 0 → Euler’s equation of motion
ρ
 Bernoulli's Equation from Euler’s Equation
Euler’s equation of motion
∂p
+ g dz + v dv = 0
ρ
On integrating
dp
∫ ρ + ∫ g dz + ∫ v dv = constant
If the flow is incompressible, ρ is constant and
p v 2
+gz + = constant
ρ 2
or p v2
+z + = constant
ρg 2g
v 2 = Velocity head
p z = Potential head
= Pressure head 2g
ρg
Assumptions made in deriving Bernoulli's Equation

•The fluid ideal, i.e viscosity is zero

•The flow is steady
•The flow is incompressible
•Flow is irrotational
•The only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity fore & the pressure force
 Bernoulli's Equation modifications
p v2
+z + = constant
ρg 2g
When Real fluid is used
p1 v12 = p 2 v 22
+ z 1+ +z 2+ + hf
ρg 2g ρg 2g

When kinetic energy correction factor (α) is applied

p1 v12 = p 2 v 22
+ z 1 + α1 + z 2+ α2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

When energy is taken from flow

p1 v12 = p 2 v 22
+ z 1+ +z 2+ + Energy taken out
ρg 2g ρg 2g
When energy is added to the flow
p1 v12 p2 v 2
+ z 1+ + Energy added = +z 2+ 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
 Flow through on orifice

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at the points 1 & 2

p1 v12 = p 2 v 22
+ z 1+ +z 2+
ρg 2g ρg 2g

z1= z2
d/2
p1 p2
= H = 0
ρg ρg d

v1= neglected

v 22
H +0 = 0 +0 +
2g

v2 = 2 g H m/s → This is theoretical velocity, actual

velocity is less than this value
 Hydraulic Co-efficients
•Co-efficient of velocity (Cv)
•Co-efficient of contraction (Cc)
•Co-efficient of discharge (Cd)

Actual velocity of jet at venacontracta v v

Co-efficient of velocity (Cv) = = v th =
Theoretical velocity of jet 2gH

Area of jet at venacontracta a

Co-efficient of contraction (Cc) =
Area of the Orifice
= A

Q
Co-efficient of discharge (Cd) =
Actual discharge
= Q th
= vv ××A
a
= Cv × Cc
Theoretical discharge th
 Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
•Venturimeter
•Orificemeter
•Pitot tube
Venturimeter
 Venturimeter

Converging Diverging
Cone Throat Cone

d2
15° to 20°

5° to 7°
d1

h
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter
1 2

d1 d2

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the section 1 & 2 .

p1 v12 p 2 v 22
+ + z 1= + +z
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2

z 1= z 2 p1 − p 2 v 22 − v12
=
ρg 2g
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter
1 2

d1 d2

p1 − p 2 v 22 − v12
=
ρg 2g

p1 − p 2
=h The pressure head measured by the U-tube manometer
ρg

v 22 − v12 As per continuity equation

h= a1 v1 = a2 v2
2g
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter
1 2

d1 d2

h
v −v
2 2
h= 2 1

2g
As per continuity equation
a2
a1 v1 = a2 v2 or v1 = v2
a1
2   a 
2

2  a 
v 2 −  2  v 2 v 2 1 −  a  
2 2
 2

 a 1     v 2
 a 2
− a 2

h= =
1
= 2


1
2
2

2g 2g 2g  a 1 

 a 12  a 1 2gh
v = 2gh  2
2
 v2 =
2 
2
 a1 − a 2  a 12 − a 22
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter
1 2

d1 d2

h
a 1 2gh
v2 =
a 12 − a 22

Q a1 2gh
=
a2 a 12 − a 22

a1 a 2 2gh a1 a 2 2gh
Q= Q th = C d
a −a
2
1
2
2 a12 − a 22
Values of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer
1 2

xh

Case-1:
Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the
liquid flowing through a pipe
S 
h = x  h − 1
 So 

Sh = Specific gravity of the heavier liquid

So = Specific gravity of the liquid flowing through the pipe
x = Difference of heavier liquid column in U-tube
Values of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer
1 2

Case-2:
Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the
liquid flowing through a pipe

 Sl 
h = x 1 − 
 So 
Sl = Specific gravity of the lighter liquid
So = Specific gravity of the liquid flowing through the pipe
x = Difference of lighter liquid column in U-tube
Values of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer

Inclined Venturimeter

Case-3:
Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the
liquid flowing through a pipe

 p1   p2   Sh 
h =  + z1  −  + z 2  = x  − 1
 ρg   ρg   So 
Values of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer

Inclined Venturimeter

Case-4:
Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the
liquid flowing through a pipe

 p1   p2   Sl 
h =  + z1  −  + z 2  = x 1 − 
 ρg   ρg   So 
 Orificemeter
Orifice Plate
Orifice Venacontracta
Diameter

Pipe
Diameter

Pressure drop
across orifice

h
 Orificemeter
Orifice Plate
Orifice Venacontracta
Diameter

Pipe
Diameter

Pressure drop
across orifice

h
Expression for rate of flow through Orificemeter
1 2 Venacontracta

d1
d2

h
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the

section 1 & 2.
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
+ + z 1= + +z
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2

z 1= z 2 p1 − p 2 v 22 − v12
=
ρg 2g
p1 − p 2
=h The pressure head measured by the U-tube manometer
ρg
v 22 − v12
h=
2g
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter

v 2
h= 2 1− v 2

2g
As per continuity equation
a2
a1 v1 = a2 v2 or v1 = v2
a1
2   a 
2

2  a 
v 2 −  2  v 2 v 2 1 −  a  
2 2 2

 a1    1

h= =
2g 2g
v 22  a 12 − a 22 
=  2

2g  a 1 

 a 12  a 1 2gh
v = 2gh  2
2
2

2 
v2 =
 a1 − a 2  a 12 − a 22
 Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter

a 1 2gh
v2 =
a 12 − a 22

Q a1 2gh
=
a2 a 12 − a 22

a1 a 2 2gh a1 a 2 2gh
Q= Q th = C d
a −a
2
1
2
2 a12 − a 22
 Pitot tube

h
H+h

H
Pitot tube
Pitot tube
Expression for velocity in Pitot tube

h
H+h

1 2
 Expression for velocity in Pitot tube
Let
p1 & p2 = Intensity of pressure at 1 & 2.
v1 & v2 = Velocity at 1 & 2
H = depth of tube in liquid
h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the

section 1 & 2.
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
+ = + +z
ρg 2g + z 1 ρg 2g 2

p1 p2
z 1= z 2 v2 = 0 H = H+h =
ρg ρg
v12
H+ =H+h
2g v12 v1 = 2 g H ( v1 ) actual = C v 2gH
h=
2g
 Velocity
Head

Total Head
Pressure Head