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• At the low flow rates where the linear relationship was observed,
the dye was seen to remain a coherent, rather smooth thread
throughout most of the tube.
• However, where the data scatter occurred, the dye trace was
seen to be rather unstable, and it broke up after a short distance.
•At still higher flow rates, where the quadratic relationship was
observed, the dye dispersed almost immediately into a uniform
‘‘cloud’’ throughout the tube.
Laminar flow
Also known as
streamline flow
Occurs when the fluid
flows in parallel
layers(lamella), with
no disruption
between the layers
The opposite of
turbulent flow
(rough)
Laminar flow
Turbulent
Laminar flow over a flat Flow
and horizontal surface can
be pictured as consisting of
parallel and thin layers
•Downstream of x = Le the
velocity profile is constant,
the wall shear is constant,
and the pressure drops
Fig. Developing velocity profiles
linearly with x, for either
and pressure changes in the
laminar or turbulent flow.
entrance of a duct flow
•Dimensional analysis shows that the Reynolds number is the only
parameter affecting entrance length. If
Le = f(d, V, 𝜇 , 𝜌) V= Q/A
then
p1 V12 p2 V22
1 z1 h p 2 z2 ht hL
2g 2g
Why ? _____________________________________
V is average velocity, kinetic energy
V 2
EGL (or TEL) and HGL
p V2
EGL z
2g
pressure elevation
head (w.r.t. velocity head (w.r.t.
reference pressure) head datum)
downward (in
•The energy grade line must always slope ___________
direction of flow) unless energy is added (pump)
•The decrease in total energy represents the head loss or
energy dissipation per unit weight
•EGL and HGL are coincident and lie at the free surface for
water at rest (reservoir)
Energy equation
V2 Energy Grade Line
velocity head Hydraulic G L
2g
z elevation
pump
z=0 datum
p1 V12 p2 V22
1 z1 hp 2 z2 ht h f
2g 2g
Flow in a Circular Pipe
Consider flow in a full pipe, driven by pressure or gravity or
both
Making a control-volume
analysis of the flow between
sections 1 and 2
Q1=Q2= const, or
………….A
…………….B
Fig. the Moody chart for pipe friction with smooth and
rough walls
Equations of Motion
•For either laminar or turbulent flow, the
continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates is
given by (App. D, F. White)
or
•Since the left-hand side varies only with r and the right-hand
side varies only with x, it follows that both sides must be equal
to the same constant.
………(E)
•Thus the shear varies linearly from the
centerline to the wall, for either laminar or
turbulent flow.
•This is also shown in Fig. (B). At r = R, we
have the wall shear
Note in Eq. (E) that the HGL slope d(p + 𝜌gz)/dx is negative
because both pressure and height drop with x.
•For laminar flow, 𝜏 = 𝜇du/dr, which we substitute in Eq. (E)
………..(G)
Integrate once
………..(H)
•Introduce into Eq. (I) to obtain the exact solution for laminar
fully developed pipe flow
………..(J)
•The laminar flow profile is thus a parabolic which is falling to
zero at the wall and reaching a maximum at the axis.
……..(K)
……..(N)
•Thus the average velocity in laminar flow is one–half the
maximum velocity (from K and N)
……..(O)
•For horizontal tube (∆z = 0), Eq. (N) is of the predicted by
Hagen’s experiment,
……..(P)
……..(P)
……..(Q)
……..(R)
•The laminar head loss follows from Eq. (C)
……..(S)
•The effect is negligible for laminar pipe flow, and all the
laminar formulas derived in this section are valid for rough
walls also.
Even though velocity (or flow rate) appears in both the ordinate and the
abscissa on the Moody chart, iteration for turbulent flow is nevertheless
quite fast, because f varies so slowly with Red. Alternately we could
change the scaling variables to (𝜌, 𝜇, and d) and thus arrive at
dimensionless head loss versus dimensionless velocity. The result is
where
•hm = the equivalent head loss across
the fitting or flow component
•V = average flow velocity for the pipe
size of the fitting
•Ki = the minor loss coefficient for given
flow component; valve, union, etc.
•Table 5.2 shows minor loss K values for several common
types of valves, fully open, and for elbows and tees.
Table 5.2 Minor loss coefficient for common valves and piping components
Fig. Butterfly
pump
•Note that: the K valves shown here are for the indicated
fractional opening. Also, fully open values may not be consistent
with values indicated in Table 5.2 for fully open valves or for the
valve of a particular manufacturer. In general, use specific
manufacturer’s data when available.
•Exit losses are K = 1.0 for all shapes of exit (reentrant, sharp,
beveled, or rounded).
Fig. E6.16
To solve basic pipe flow pressure drop problem, use the following
procedure:
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