CRYPTOGRAPHY

 Visual Cryptography is a secret-sharing method that

encrypts a secret image into several shares but
requires neither computer nor calculations to decrypt
the secret image. Instead, the secret image is
reconstructed visually: simply by overlaying the
encrypted shares the secret image becomes clearly
visible

 A Visual Cryptography Scheme (VCS) on a set Ρ of

n participants is a method of encoding a 'secret'
image into n shares such that original image is
obtained only by stacking specific combinations of
the shares onto each other.
INTRODUCTION:

 Cryptography:

Plain Text Encryption Cipher Text

Plain Text Decryption Channel

VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY:

Plaintext (in form of image)

Encryption (creating shares)

Channel (Fax, Email)

Decryption (Human Visual System)

 EXAMPLE:
Secret Image

Secret Image

Share1

Stacking the share

reveals the secret

Share2
ENCODING OF
PIXELS:
Original Pixel

Share1

Share2

overlaid

Note: White is actually transparent

COMPUTER REPRESENTATION OF
PIXELS

Original Pixel

share1

s1= s0=

share2

overlaid Image
CRYPTOSYSTEMS

encryp decrypt plaintext

plaintext t
message ciphertex message
SENDER key t key RECEIVER
retreat at sb%6x*cmf retreat at
dawn dawn
ciphertex
t

Alice Bob

ATTACKER

Eve
7
THE PROBLEM REMAINS: HOW TO GET THE
KEY FROM ALICE TO BOB?

Sf&*&3vv*+@@Q 1324-5465-2255-9988
1324-5465-2255-9988
AES
SENDER key ciphertext key RECEIVER

(Alice’s Credit Card The (Alice’s Credit Card

Internet
#) #)

Alice Bob
(You) (An on-line store)

ATTACKER
Eve
(Identity thief)
8
A WAY FOR ALICE AND BOB TO
AGREE ON A SECRET KEY

through messages
that are completely
public
DIFFIE-HELLMAN KEY EXCHANGE
 FIRST PUBLIC-KEY TYPE SCHEME PROPOSED

 BY DIFFIE & HELLMAN IN 1976 ALONG WITH

THE EXPOSITION OF PUBLIC KEY CONCEPTS

 IS A PRACTICAL METHOD FOR PUBLIC

EXCHANGE OF A SECRET KEY

 USED IN A NUMBER OF COMMERCIAL

PRODUCTS
THE BASIC IDEA OF DIFFIE-HELLMAN
KEY AGREEMENT

 Arrange things so that

 Alice has a secret number that only Alice knows
 Bob has a secret number that only Bob knows
 Alice and Bob then communicate something publicly
 They somehow compute the same number
 Only they know the shared number -- that’s the key!
 No one else can compute this number without knowing
Alice’s secret or Bob’s secret
 But Alice’s secret number is still hers alone, and Bob’s
is Bob’s alone
 Sounds impossible …
DIFFIE-HELLMAN KEY EXCHANGE
 shared session key for users A & B is KAB :
x x
KAB = α A. B mod q
x
= yA B mod q (which B can compute)
x
= yB A mod q (which A can compute)

 KABis used as session key in private-key

encryption scheme between Alice and Bob

 ifAlice and Bob subsequently communicate,

they will have the same key as before, unless
they choose new public-keys
DIFFIE-HELLMAN KEY EXCHANGE
 a public-key distribution scheme
 cannot be used to exchange an arbitrary message
 rather it can establish a common key
 known only to the two participants

 value of key depends on the participants (and

their private and public key information)

 based
on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field
(modulo a prime or a polynomial) - easy

 securityrelies on the difficulty of computing

discrete logarithms (similar to factoring) – hard
 DIFFIE-HELLMAN
A B
Bob
Alice
a b

Eve

Let K = B*a = A*b

Alice and Bob can now use this number as a shared key for encrypted
communication

Eve the eavesdropper knows A = f(a) and B = f(b)

And she also knows how to compute f and g. But going from these back
to a or b requires reversing a one-way computation.
DIFFIE-HELLMAN EXAMPLE
 users Alice & Bob who wish to swap keys:
 agree on prime q=353 and α=3
 select random secret keys:
A chooses xA=97, B chooses xB=233
 compute public keys:
97
 yA=3 mod 353 = 40 (Alice)
233
 yB=3 mod 353 = 248 (Bob)
 compute shared session key as:
xA 97
KAB = yB mod 353 = 248 = 160 (Alice)
xB 233
KAB = yA mod 353 = 40 = 160 (Bob)
THE MATH BEHIND DIFFIE-
HELLMAN KEY AGREEMENT
 GIVEN Q AND P, AND AN EQUATION OF
THE FORM
QN = Y (MOD P)

 THEN IT IS EXPONENTIALLY HARDER TO

COMPUTE N GIVEN Y, THAN IT IS TO
COMPUTE Y GIVEN N.

 FOR 500-DIGIT NUMBERS, WE’RE

TALKING ABOUT A COMPUTING EFFORT
OF 1700 STEPS VS. 10500 STEPS.
ADVANTAGE OF DH METHOD
 Simple to implement
 Both secret and symmetry-key are represented
in binary image
 Even if many eavesdroppers listen over the
public communication channel, we can
immediately transmit a secret message to
others.
 we enhance shadow image structure to reduce
the chances for an attacker to guess the secret.
 Infinite Computation Power can’t predict the
message.
APPLICATIONS
 Internet
 Mobile communication

 Fax machine

 ATM machine