LAN Technology

K.
Suresh
Sub Divisional Engineer(DX)
Telephones: +91-120-2728412(O)
+91-120-2728434(O)
+91-120-2728839(R)
E-mail: k_suresh@bsnl.in
ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 1

LAN Topology

Inter working Devices
Local Area Network (LAN)

Works in a single office, building or campus
Most common LAN topologies are bus, ring
& star
Ethernet was early network introduced in
1980
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Provides long distance transmission over
large geographical area
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Connecting number of LANs into a larger
network using WAN circuits
Network Topologies (Mesh & Star)
Topology is the geometric representation of all the links

and linking devices
Dedicated point-to- • Each device has a dedicated
point link between point-to-point link to a central
devices. controller, called a hub.
Advantages: Dedicated • Advantages :Less expensive,
link & fault isolation is fault isolation is easy & each
easy device needs only one link
Disadvantages: More
Space/Hardware • Disadvantage : If hub fails,
requirement whole network will be down
HUB
Mesh Topology Star Topology

Network Topologies (Tree & Bus)
Tree Topology
The central hub in the tree is
HUB
an active hub.
An active hub contains a HUB HUB
repeater.
The secondary hubs can be
active or passive.
Bus Topology
Drop line Drop line Drop line Drop line
Cable End Cable End
Tap Tap Tap Tap
 Advantages : Multi point, Ease of installation & Uses

less cables than mesh/star/tree topologies
 Disadvantage: Difficult to add new devices & A fault
in the bus cable stops all transmission000

Network Topologies (Ring & Hybrid)
Each device is connected with
the two devices on either side of
it.
Advantages: To add or delete a
device, requires moving only
two connections & Fault
isolation is simplified
Disadvantage : A break in ring
can disable the entire network. Ring Topology
Star
Hybrid Topology HUB
HUB
• Mixed topology using
Star/Mesh & Ring
according to the
need Star Bus
Ring

Inter-working Devices

Inter-working Devices
Hub
Bridges
LAN Switches
Routers
Gateways

Hub

Hubs
Hubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters:
bits coming from one link go out all other
links at the same rate
no frame buffering
no CSMA/CD at hub: adapters detect
collisions
twisted pair
hub

Hubs
The active central element of the

star layout.
When a single station transmits,
the hub repeats the signal on the
outgoing line to each station.
Physically a star; logically a bus.
Hubs can be cascaded in a
hierarchical configuration.

Hubs
Operating at the physical layer, hubs

are very simple devices that pass all
traffic in both directions between the
LAN sections they link.
They may connect different types of
cable, but use the same data link and
network protocol.
Strictly speaking, hubs are not
considered part of a backbone network,
but are usually repeaters or amplifiers.

Hub/Switch uses Star topology
Bus topology popular through mid 90s
Now star topology prevails
Connection choices:
hub or switch
hub or
switch

Interconnecting with hubs
Backbone hub interconnects LAN segments
Extends max distance between nodes
But individual segment collision domains
become one large collision domain
Can’t interconnect 10BaseT & 100BaseT
hub
hub
hub hub

Bridges

Bridges
Allow connections between LANs and to

WANs
Operates at Layer 2 (Data Link Layer)
of OSI
Used between networks using identical
physical and link layer protocols
Provide a number of advantages
Reliability: Creates self-contained units
Performance: Less contention
Security: Not all data broadcast to all users
Geography: Allows long-distance links
Bridges

Bridge Functions
Read all frames from each network

Accept frames from sender on one
network that are addressed to a
receiver on the other network
Retransmit frames from sender
using MAC protocol for receiver
Must have some routing
information stored in order to
know which frames to pass

Bridges
If a bridge receives a packet with a

destination address that is not in the
address table, it forwards the packet to
all networks or network segments
except the one on which it was
received.
Bridges are a combination of both
hardware and software, typically a
“black box” that sits between the two
networks, but can also be a computer
with two NICs and special software.

Bridge Operation

LAN Switch

Switch: Forwarding
switch
1
2 3
hub
hub hub
How do determine onto which LAN segment to

forward frame?
Looks like a routing problem...
Switch: Self learning
A switch has a switch table

Entry in switch table:
(MAC Address, Interface, Time Stamp)
stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60
min)
Switch learns which hosts can be
reached through which interfaces
when frame received, switch “learns”
location of sender: incoming LAN segment
records sender/location pair in switch table

Switch: Filtering/Forwarding
When switch receives a frame:
Searches the switch table using MAC
destination address
If entry found for destination
then forward the frame on interface
indicated, if it has not come from the
same segment
Else drop the frame
If no match found in the switch table,
flood on all the other interfaces

Switch example
switch address interface
1 A 1
2 3
B 1
E 2
hub hub hub G 3
A
I
D F
B C G H
E
Suppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from C
notes in bridge table that C is on interface 1
because D is not in table, switch forwards
frame into interfaces 2 and 3
Frame received by D
Switch example
address interface
switch
A 1
B 1
E 2
hub hub hub G 3
A
I C 1
D F
B C G H
E
Suppose D replies back with frame to C.

Switch receives frame from D
notes in bridge table that D is on interface 2
because C is in table, switch forwards frame
only to interface 1
Frame received by C
Switch: traffic isolation
Switch filters packets:
same-LAN-segment frames not usually
forwarded onto other LAN segments
segments become separate collision
domains
switch
collision
domain
hub
hub hub
collision domain collision domain

Switches: dedicated access
Switch with many
interfaces A
Hosts have direct C’ B

connection to switch
No collisions; full switch
duplex
Switching: A-to-A’ and C
B-to-B’ simultaneously,
no collisions B’ A’

Switches
Like bridges, switches operate at

the data link layer.
Switches connect two or more
computers or network segments
that use the same data link and
network protocol.
They may connect the same or
different types of cable.

Switches
Switches operate at the same

layers as bridges but differ from
them in two ways:
First, most switches enable all ports
to be in use simultaneously, making
them faster than bridges.
Second, unlike bridges, switches
don’t learn addresses, and need to
have addresses defined.

Ethernet Hubs and Switches
Shared
medium
hubs
Switched x
LAN hubs

Switched Ethernet
A simple concept behind switched

Ethernet - replace the LAN hub
with a switch. Each computer now
has its own dedicated point-to-
point circuit.
By increasing the number of
connections from the server to the
switch, the throughput of the
server will be improved because of
more circuits.

Switched Ethernet

Types of Switches
Switch establishes a connection

between two segments just long
enough to send the current packet
Incoming packets (part of an Ethernet
frame) are saved to a temporary
memory area (buffer)
MAC address contained in the header is
read and then compared to a list of
addresses maintained in the switch's
lookup table

Types of Switches
Routes the packet using

one of the following
methods:
Cut-through
Store-and-forward
Fragment-free

Cut-through Switching
After storing the MAC Address

(6 bytes) immediately begin
sending the packet to the
destination node, even as the
rest of the packet is coming
into the switch.
No CRC Checking (disadvantage)
Fast switching (advantage)

Store-and-forward Switching
Switch will save the entire
packet to the buffer and check
it for CRC errors or other
problems before sending.
Otherwise, the switch looks up
the MAC address and sends
the packet on to the
destination node.
Slow (disadvantage)
Error free operation (advantage)

Fragment-free Switching
Works like cut-through except
that it stores the first 64
bytes of the packet before
sending it on.
The reason for this is that
most errors, and all collisions,
occur during the initial 64
bytes of a packet.
Still CRC cannot be checked
(disadvantage)
faster (advantage)
Layer 3 Switches
Problems With Layer 2 Switches

Broadcast overload because of the single MAC broadcast
address (e.g. using ARP for Data Link Layer address
resolution)
Lack of multiple links - only one path
Normally, the above problems can be solved with
several subnets connected by routers. However,
A MAC broadcast frame is then limited to only the devices
and switches contained in a single subnet.
A router does all IP-level processing, some of which could
be not necessary.
It is implemented in software and slow.
Layer 3 switches implement the packet-forwarding logic
of the router in hardware.

Transparent Bridging
& Broadcast storm

A Technology that allows a switch to learn

everything it needs to know about the
location of nodes on the network without
the network administrator having to do
anything.
Transparent bridging has five parts:
Learning
Flooding
Filtering
Forwarding
Aging

Switch A
Node A
H
U
Node C
B
Segment-A
HUB
Switch B Switch C
Node B
Segment-B

Transparent Bridging: Learning
A computer (Node A) on the first segment

(Segment A) sends data to a computer
(Node B) on another segment (Segment B).
The switch gets the first packet of data
from Node A.
It reads the MAC address and saves it to
the lookup table for Segment A.
The switch now knows where to find Node A
anytime a packet is addressed to it.
This process is called learning.

Transparent Bridging: Flooding
Since the switch does not know

where Node B is, it sends the packet
to all of the segments except the one
that it arrived on (Segment A).
When a switch sends a packet out to
all segments to find a specific node,
it is called flooding.

Transparent Bridging: Forwarding
Node B gets the packet and sends a packet
back to Node A in acknowledgement.
The packet from Node B arrives at the switch.
Now the switch can add the MAC address of
Node B to the lookup table for Segment B.
Since the switch already knows the address
of Node A, it sends the packet directly to it.
Because Node A is on a different segment
than Node B, the switch must connect the
two segments to send the packet.
This is known as forwarding.

Transparent Bridging: Filtering
The next packet from Node A to Node B
arrives at the switch.
The switch now has the address of
Node B, too, so it forwards the packet
directly to Node B.
Node C sends information to the switch
for Node A.
The switch looks at the MAC address
for Node C and adds it to the lookup
table for Segment A.
Transparent Bridging: Filtering
The switch already has the address
for Node A and determines that both
nodes are on the same segment, so it
does not need to connect Segment A
to another segment for the data to
travel from Node C to Node A.
Therefore, the switch will ignore
packets traveling between nodes on
the same segment.
This is filtering.
Transparent Bridging: Aging
Learning and flooding continue as the
switch adds nodes to the lookup tables.
Most switches have plenty of memory in
a switch for maintaining the lookup
tables;
but to optimize the use of this memory,
they still remove older information so
that the switch doesn't waste time
searching through stale addresses.
To do this, switches use a technique
called aging.
Broadcast Storms
Node B Switch A
Segment-C
Segment-A
HUB
Switch B Switch C
Node A
Segment-B

Broadcast Storms
When switches are connected in a loop, a
packet from a node could quite possibly
come to a switch from two different
segments.
In this scenario, imagine that Node B is
connected to Switch A, and needs to
communicate with Node A on Segment B.
Switch A does not know who the
destination Node A is, so it floods the
packet.
Packet travels via Segment A or Segment C
to the other two switches (B and C).
Broadcast Storms
Switch B will add Node B to the lookup table it
maintains for Segment A, while Switch C will
add it to the lookup table for Segment C.
Each switch will take the packet sent by the
other switch and flood it back out again
immediately, since they still don't know who
the destination Node A is.
Switch A will receive the packet from each
segment and flood it back out on the other
segment.
This causes a broadcast storm as the packets
are broadcast, received and re-broadcasted
by each switch.
Spanning Tree Protocol

Spanning Tree
Prevents broadcast storms
Standardized as the 802.1d
specification by IEEE.
Spanning Tree uses the spanning-
tree algorithm (STA) that:
senses that the switch has more than
one way to communicate with a node
determines which way is best
and blocks out the other duplicate
path(s)

Each switch is assigned a group of IDs, one

for the switch itself and one for each port on
the switch.
The switch's identifier, called the bridge ID
(BID), is 8 bytes long and contains a bridge
priority (2 bytes) along with one of the
switch's MAC addresses (6 bytes).
Each port ID is 16 bits long with two parts:
a 6-bit priority setting and a 10-bit port
number.

A path cost value is given to each port.

The cost is typically based on a guideline
established as part of 802.1d.
According to the original specification, cost is
1,000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second) divided
by the bandwidth of the segment connected
to the port.
Therefore, a 10 Mbps connection would have
a cost of (1,000/10) 100.

Each switch begins a discovery process to
choose which network paths it should use for
each segment.
This information is shared between all the
switches by way of special network frames
called bridge protocol data units (BPDU).
The parts of a BPDU are:
Root BID - This is the BID of the current root bridge.
Path cost to root bridge - This determines how far away
the root bridge is.
Sender BID - This is the BID of the switch that sends
the BPDU.
Port ID - This is the actual port on the switch that the
BPDU was sent from.

All switches constantly send BPDUs to each
other.
When a switch receives a BPDU (from
another switch):
Checks if it is better than the one it is
broadcasting for the same segment
If yes, then it will stop broadcasting its
BPDU out that segment
It will store the other switch's BPDU for
reference and for broadcasting out to
inferior segments, such as those that are
farther away from the root bridge
A root bridge is chosen based on the results

of the BPDU process between the switches.
Initially, every switch considers itself the
root bridge.
When a switch first powers up on the
network, it sends out a BPDU with its own
BID as the root BID.
When the other switches receive the BPDU,
they compare the BID to the one they
already have stored as the root BID.

If the new root BID has a lower value, they
replace the saved one.
If the saved root BID is lower, a BPDU is
sent to the new switch with this BID as the
root BID.
When the new switch receives the BPDU, it
realizes that it is not the root bridge and
replaces the root BID in its table with the
one it just received.
The result is that the switch that has the
lowest BID is elected by the other switches
as the root bridge.
Based on the location of the root

bridge, the other switches determine
which of their ports has the lowest
path cost to the root bridge.
These ports are called root ports, and
each switch (other than the current
root bridge) must have one.
The switches determine who will
have designated ports.

A designated port is the connection used
to send and receive packets on a specific
segment.
By having only one designated port per
segment, all looping issues are resolved.
Once the designated port for a network
segment has been chosen, any other ports
that connect to that segment become
non-designated ports.
They block network traffic from taking that
path so it can only access that segment
through the designated port.
Routers & Gateways

Routers
Routers operate at the network layer.

Routers connect two or more LANs that
use the same or different data link
protocols, but the same network protocol.
Routers may be “black boxes,” computers
with several NICs, or special network
modules in computers.
In general they perform more processing
on each message than bridges and
therefore operate more slowly.

Routers

Routers
Segments LANs into

Ethernet switch
distinct networks and
3rd floor
subnetworks;
2nd floor e.g. the distinct red,
green and blue LANs
1st floor with distinct network
numbers.
router
Segments LANs into
broadcast domains

Routers
Provides interface
to the WAN.
Intranet, commercial
Internet and
Internet2
connections.

Routers vs Bridges
Routers can choose the best route.

Routers also only process messages
specifically addressed to it.
Routers can connect networks using
different data link layer protocols.
Therefore, routers are able to change
data link layer packets.
Routers may split a message into
several smaller messages for
transmission.

Switches vs. Routers
Both store-and-forward devices
routers: network layer devices (examine
network layer headers)
switches are link layer devices
Routers maintain routing tables,
implement routing algorithms
Switches maintain switch tables,
implement filtering, learning algorithms

LAN: Switches vs. Repeaters
Repeaters (hubs) are old technology.

A repeater sends (repeats) packets that
are incoming on one port, out all other
ports (I know you’re out there
somewhere!).
Can only operate in half duplex mode.
Bandwidth and jitter provided to any
single device is highly dependent on the
LAN traffic.

LAN: Switches vs. Repeaters
A switch learns the MAC addresses of the

devices connected to it, and sends
packets directly and only to the target
end-point.
Provides much more consistent
bandwidth and latency (low jitter).
A well-designed switched LAN is
important for videoconferencing.
Repeater-based LANs should be upgraded
to switched for videoconferencing!

Campus LAN example
mail server
to external
network
router web server
switch
IP subnet
hub
hub hub

Gateways
Gateways operate at the network layer

and use network layer addresses in
processing messages.
Gateways connect two or more LANs
that use the same or different (usually
different) data link and network
protocols.
The may connect the same or different
kinds of cable.
Gateways process only those messages
explicitly addressed to them.

Gateways
Gateways translate one network
protocol into another, translate data
formats, and open sessions between
application programs, thus overcoming
both hardware and software
incompatibilities.
A gateway may be a stand-alone
microcomputer with several NICs and
special software, a FEP connected to a
mainframe computer, or even a special
circuit card in the network server.

Gateways
One of the most common uses of

gateways is to enable LANs that use
TCP/IP and ethernet to
communicate with IBM mainframes
that use SNA.
The gateway provides both the
basic system interconnection and
the necessary translation between
the protocols in both directions.

Gateways

Backbone Architecture

Backbone Architecture Layers
Network designs are made up

of three technology layers:
The access layer which is the
technology used in LANs
The distribution layer connects
LANs together
The core layer connects
different backbone networks
together

Backbone network design layers
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
Distribution Access Layer

Core Layer Layer
Routed Backbones
Routed backbones move packets using

network layer addresses
Each LAN is a separate and isolated
network.
LANs can use different data link layer
protocols.
Main advantage:
LAN segmentation.
Main disadvantages:
Routers introduce more delay and require
more mgmt. compared to bridging/
switching
Routed Backbones

Bridged Backbones
Forwards the packet based on

their data link layer addresses.
The entire bridged backbone falls
under one subnet.
Bridged backbones are cheaper
Performance
performs well For small networks
for large networks broadcast
messages lower performance.

Bridged Backbones

Collapsed Backbones
Collapsed backbones use a star

topology
The backbone has fewer devices.
Advantages are:
simultaneous access and much higher
performance
a simpler & more easily managed network.
Disadvantages are:
use more cable
if the central switch fails, the network goes
down.
Collapsed Backbones

Rack-based Collapsed Backbones
Rack-based backbones collapse the

into a single room using
Main Distribution Facility (MDF)
Devices are connected using short
patch cables.
Moving computers between LANs
is relatively simple

Rack-based Collapsed Backbones

Chassis-based Collapsed Backbones
Uses a large chassis switch that

has slots into which modules can
be inserted.
Chassis switch designs include a
number of open slots and have an
internal capacity capable of
supporting all active modules.

Chassis-based Collapsed Backbones

Ethernet Technology

Background of Ethernet (First LAN)
Digital, Intel & Xerox (DIX) consortium

created original Ethernet 1980
(originally known as Alto Aloha
Network)
The first network to provide Carrier
Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
Ethernet_II to followed in 1984 (ver-2)
IEEE termed this as 802 project
Initially IEEE 802 Project divided into three
groups

Initial IEEE 802 Project
High level interface (HILI) became

802.1 committee
Responsible for High level interworking
protocols and management
LLC group became 802.2 committee,
for end to end link connectivity between
higher layer and media access dependent
layers
DL & MAC (DLMAC) group became
responsible medium access protocols
DL MAC has been split into three sub
committees
DL MAC committees – 802.3
802.3 for Ethernet
Came of with Ethernet physical layer
spec.
MAC addressing is same as Ethernet_II
but length field replaced type filed
Bus topology LAN at 10 Mbps with
collision detection (CSMA/CD)
10base 2/ thinnet – 185 meters segment
without repeater over RG58 coaxial cable at 50
ohms
10base 5/ thicknet – 500 meters segment
without repeater over RG8/11 coaxial cable at
50 ohms
10base T/UTP – cat 3 UTP(Unshielded Twisted
Pair) to support 10 Mbps

DL MAC committees – 802.4/802.5
802.4 for Token Bus

Burroughs, concord data systems,
Honeywell, western digital, general
motors & Boeing took over 802.4
802.5 for Token Ring
IBM worked on 802.5

Ethernet Standards (802.3)
Ethernet (10 Mbps)

Ethernet_II - (DIX- Ethernet)
IEEE 802.3 - Ethernet
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
IEEE 802.12 - 100VG AnyLAN
IEEE 802.3u - Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps or 1
Gbps)
IEEE 802.3z - Gigabit Ethernet
IEEE 802.ab - Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)
IEEE 802.3ae - 10 Gigabit Ethernet

Ethernet_II
DIX-Ethernet Layers
Upper Other
Layers Layers
Network Network
Media Access Control Data Link
(MAC) Physical
Ethernet_II OSI model

Ethernet Frame Structure
Sending Network Adapter encapsulates

IP datagram (or other network layer
protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble:
7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed
by one byte with pattern 10101011
Used to synchronize receiver, sender
clock rates
Ethernet Frame Structure
Addresses:matching destination
address or broadcast address are
passed to network-layer protocol
rest discarded
Type: indicates the higher layer protocol
CRC: checked at receiver, if error is
detected, the frame is simply dropped

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm
Adaptor receives datagram from Layer3

& creates frame
If adapter senses channel idle, it starts
to transmit frame.
If it senses channel busy, waits until
channel idle and then transmits
If adapter transmits entire frame
without detecting another transmission,
the adapter is done with frame !

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm
If adapter detects another transmission while
transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal
After aborting, adapter enters exponential
backoff
after mth collision
first collision: choose K from {0,1} i.e.{0, 22-
1}; delay is K x 512 bit transmission times
after second collision: choose K from {0,1,2,3}…ie.
{0,1,..22-1}
after ten collisions, choose K from
{0,1,2,3,4,…,1023}I.e. {0,1,..210-1}

Ethernet_II- Frame
64~1518B
72~1526B
8B 6B 6B 2B 46~1500B 4B
T
DESTINATION SOURCE
Y
PREAMBLE HARDWARE HARDWARE LAYER 3 DATA CRC
ADDRESS ADDRESS
P
E
Eg. Of Type Fields:

 0800- IP
 0806- ARP
 8035- RARP

Ethernet_II Frame - Details
Preamble: 8 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s
to synchronise the receiver
Destination Address (DA): 6 bytes (48
bits) unique physical address of destination
machine encoded in NIC
Source Address (SA): 6 bytes (48 bits)
unique physical address of source machine
encoded in NIC
Type : 2 bytes (16 bits) indicates the type of
Layer 3 protocol being used Eg. IP, ARP or
RARP (uses RFC 1700 Ethernet Type Values)
Layer 3 Data: Between 46-1500 bytes
CRC : 4 bytes (32 bits) for error detection
information
MAC Address structure (for all Ethernet)
Destination address : (LS Bit first and MS bit Last in each byte -
Little-Endian style)
I/G Individual / group address:
0 - Individual address.
1 - Group address.
U/L Universal /local address:
0 - Universally administered.
1- Locally administered.
Source address (LS Bit first and MS bit Last in each byte -
Little-Endian style)
I/G bit is always 0. U/L Universal/local address may be 0/1
LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB
U/L I/G
Most Significant Byte Least Significant Byte
Organisationally Unique Identifier (OUI) Vendor Assingned No. (Serial No.)

(3 bytes) (3 bytes)
CSMA/CD
Ethernet Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) as access
method
Any station wishing to transmit must listen for
Carrier on the line
If no carrier is detected, the line is idle and
transmission can be initiated
Two or more stations transmits at the same
time, when there was no carrier, results in
collision which is indicated by high voltage on
the line
After collision retry is done at staggered time
by different devices
CSMA/CD reduces the number of collision but
does not eliminate them
Cabling Spec. for UTP Standard
Category 3 – (Cat 3)for speed 10 Mbps

Category 4 – (Cat 4) for speed 16 Mbps
Category 5 – Cat 5) for speed 100 Mbps
Category 6 – (Cat 6) for speed 1Gbps
also known as Category 5E
Category 7 – Cat 7) for speed 10 Gbps

IEEE Project 802
IEEE Project 802 sets standard to

enable interworking between devices of
various vendors.
Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer has
been added to achieve the above objective
Other Other
Layers Layers
Network Network
Logical Link Control Data Link
Media Access Control Physical
IEEE Project 802 OSI model

Initial IEEE Project 802
• IEEE 802.2 LLC deals with logical address,

control information and data
• MAC sub layer resolves contention for shared
media
Other Layers
Network
802.2 - Logical Link Control
802.3 802.4 802.5 ANSI
CSMA/CD Token Bus Token Ring FDDI
IEEE Project 802
802.3 MAC Frame/802.2 LLC without SNAP
DSAP SSAP Control

1B 1B 1–2 B
802.2 LLC LAYER

ENCAPSULATION
DATA
3B 43~1497B
DESTINATIO LE
S N
SOURCE
N
PREAMBLE F HARDWARE HARDWARE 802.2 PDU CRC
GT
D ADDRESS
ADDRESS H
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46~1500B 4B
64~1518B
72~1526B

802.3 MAC Frame
Preamble
7 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s that alert
the receiving system and enable it to
synchronise its input timing
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)
I byte (10101011) signals the beginning of
the frame
Destination Address (DA)
6 bytes (48 bits) unique physical address of
destination machine encoded in NIC
Source Address (SA)
6 bytes (48 bits) unique physical address of
source machine encoded in NIC
802.3 MAC Frame
Length (2 bytes)
Indicate number of bytes in the frame
802.2 PDU
Upper layer information between 46-1500
bytes
CRC (4 bytes)
for error detection information

802.2 LLC Header
DSAP:Destination service access point structure

I/G - Individual/group address
0 - Individual DSAP.
1 - Group DSAP.
SSAP:Source service access point structure
C/R - Command/response:
0 - Command.
1 - Response.
Control: The structure of the control field is same as HDLC .
For IP Network value is (03)
I/G DSAP C/R SSAP Control
802.2 LLC Header

802.3 MAC Frame/802.2 LLC with SNAP
OUI- Organisationally Unique Identifier OUI Ether Type

SNAP- Sub Network Access Point 3B 2B
DSAP SSAP Control SNAP

1B 1B 1–2 B 5B
802.2 LLC / SNAP

ENCAPSULATION
DATA
8B 38~1492B
DESTINATIO LE
S N
SOURCE
N
PREAMBLE F HARDWARE HARDWARE 802.2 PDU CRC
GT
D ADDRESS
ADDRESS H
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46~1500B 4B
64~1518B
72~1526B
Ethernet Encapsulations Methods
On Ethernet you have four

encapsulation formats:
Ethernet version II
Novell-specific framing
Ethernet 802.3/802.2 without
SNAP
Ethernet 802.3/802.2 with SNAP
Ethernet 802.3/802.2 with SNAP
Ethernet 802.3/802.2 uses the type field

to determine the packet protocol.
802.3/802.2 use the DSAP and SSAP
fields.
Because there are only 256 possible SAP
values, they are fairly hard to get.
The special SAP number of AA was
assigned to indicate that there are further
headers after the 802.2 header that must
be seen to determine the network-level
protocol.
This is the SNAP (Sub Network Access point)

header that uses the same type field used by
Ethernet_II.
IP on an Ethernet can be indicated by
Ethernet V2 type 0x0800;
802.2 SAP code 0x06;
or a SAP code of 0xAA followed by a SNAP
type code of 0x0800.
AppleTalk can be indicated by either
Ethernet V2 type 0x809B (Phase I),
or a SAP code of 0xAA followed by a SNAP
type code of 0x809B (Phase II).
AppleTalk is currently never sent as an
802.3/802.2 packet with a unique SAP code.
Novell can be found as either
Ethernet type 0x8137,
or a raw 802.3 packet.
It is not sent as an 802.3/802.2 packet with a
unique SAP code (0xE0).
There are only a few SAP values that you are
likely to run across. They are:
04 - IBM SNA
06 - IP
80 - 3Com
AA - SNAP
BC - Banyan
E0 - Novell (TR)
Ethernet (Cabling Spec.)
Three main Cabling specifications

are available in Ethernet:
10 Base 5
Uses Thick co-axial Cable
10 Base 2
Uses Thin Coaxial Cable
10 Base T
Uses Unshielded Twisted pair cable

10Base5; Thick Ethernet; Thicknet
The nickname derives from the size of

the cable
Each station on Ethernet network has
its own Network Interface Card (NIC)
which provides the station with a
unique 6 bytes physical address
Each frame is transmitted to every
station on the link but will be read only
by the station to which it is addressed
Transceiver performs the CSMA/CD for
checking voltages and collisions on the
line
10Base5; Thick Ethernet; Thicknet
1
R R
Segment 1
2.5 M 50 M 6 5 Segment 1
2
500 M; 200 Stations 4 3

5 Segments; 2500 M; 1000 Stations
1-NIC(Network Interface Card) 2-RG-8 Thick Coaxial Cable

3-Cable Terminator 4-Transceiver Vampire Tap
5-Attachment Unit Interface (AUI);Transceiver Cable (15 Wires)
6-Media Attachment unit (MAU);commonly known as Transceiver

10Base2; Thin Ethernet; Thinnet
Also known as cheapnet or cheapernet
Provides same data rate as 10Base5 but
with distance limitation of 185 meters
and lesser number of work stations
Transceiver circuitry has moved into the
NIC
Transceiver tap has been replaced by a
connector that splices the station
directly into the cable
BNC-T connector is with 3 ports; one for
NIC, one each for input and output ends
of the cable
10Base2; Thin Ethernet; Thinnet
1 2
185 M
1-NIC(Network Interface Card) 2-RG-58 Thin Coaxial Cable

3-BNC-T Connector 4-Cable Terminator

10BaseT
A star topology LAN

All individual transceiver functions and
networking operations are placed in an
intelligent hub with a port for each
station
Hub fans out any transmitted frame to
all its connected stations
Frame will be read by all, but will only
be processed by the station to which it
is addressed

Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseT
Each bit has a transition
Allows clocks in sending and receiving
nodes to synchronize to each other
10BaseT
10Base-T Hub
1
2 4
5 3
100 M 100 M
1-10 Base-T Hub 2-RJ-45 Connector Male

3-RJ-45 Connector Female 4-Network Interface Card
5-RJ-45; Four Pairs UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cable

Fast Ethernet Standards
Two standards are approved by

IEEE in June 1995
802.12
802.3u

Fast Ethernet Standards- 802.12/802.3u
802.12
Uses even efficient signaling techniques
than CSMA/CD known as Demand Priority
Access Method (DPAM)
Also known as 100VG-AnyLAN
is similar to the other standard however
utilizes a different type of Ethernet frame to
send its data.
Not popular and eventually disappeared
from the market
802.3u
Most popular spec. in 100Mbps over cat 5
UTP or cat 5 plus

Need for Media Independent Interface (MII)
Fast Ethernet requires faster interface

than 10 Mbps Ethernet
10 Mbps Ethernet uses Attachment Unit
Interface (AUI) to connect Ethernet
segment
MAC is to remain constant for any
physical layer technologies
AUI cannot support 100 Mbps Ethernet
because of high frequencies( AUI Uses
2.5 MHz clock in Ethernet- 10 Mbps)
100 base T needed new interface-
media Independent Interface (MII)
Media Independent Interface (MII)
100 base T created new Sub interface

between physical/data link layer called
reconciliation sub layer (RS) RS maps is
1s and 0s to MII.
MII transfers one nibble which is 4 bits
MII has 25MHz clock and and one
nibble (4 bits) are transferred to
Physical Layer every clock cycle

Fast Ethernet MII/Physical Layers

100 Base T (Cabling Spec.)
100Base-T is available in three

different types of cable technologies:
100Base-T4 = Utilizes four pairs of telephone-
grade twisted-pair wire and is used for
networks that need a low quality twisted-pair
on a 100-Mbps Ethernet
100Base-TX = Developed by ANSI 100Base-
TX is also known as 100Base-X, 100Base-TX
uses two wire data grade twisted-pair wire
100Base-FX = Developed by ANSI, 100Base-
FX utilizes 2 stands of fiber cable

Fast Ethernet
100 Base-TX
Uses 2 pairs (1 pair towards hub and other
pair from hub) of CAT-5 UTP or STP
Encoding used is 4B/5B
Distance between hub & station be < 100 M
100 Base-FX
Uses 2 optical Fibers (1 fibre towards hub
and other fibre from hub)
Encoding used is 4B/5B
Distance between hub & station be < 2000
M

Fast Ethernet
100 Base-T4
Makes use of already exiting telephone
cables
Uses 4 pairs of voice grade UTP CAT-3
2 pairs are bi-directional and the other 2
are uni-directional
At a time 3 pairs are used to carry data in
each direction at a data rate of 33.33 Mbps
i.e. 2 pairs carry data bi-directionally
Encoding used is 8B/6T (8Binary/6Ternary)
Distance between hub & station be < 100 M

Auto Negotiation in Fast Ethernet
Auto negotiatiation uses a priority

scheme to decide more preferred option
for 100/10 Mbps Ethernet
Lower the functioning value more the
preferred one
Auto negotiatiation uses fast link pulses
(FLPs) for negotiatiation
Lowest functioning option is chosen
Auto negotiation may fail sometimes
Important connection are configured
manually
Auto Negotiation Priorities
Standard full/half Auto negotiation

priority
100 base T2 full 1
100 base T2 half 2
100 base Tx full 3
100 base Tx half 4
100 base T4 half 5
10 base T full 6
10 base T half 7

10BaseT and 100BaseT
10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet”
‘T’ stands for Twisted Pair
Nodes connect to a hub: “star topology”;
100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub

Gigabit Eth MAC/Phy Layer
1000 base T created new Sub

interface between physical/data
link layer known as GMII ( Gigabit
Media Independent Interface).
GMII transfers one byte (8 bits) at
a time to physical layer
GMII has 125MHz clock and and
one byte (8 bits) is transferred to
Physical Layer every clock cycle

Gigabit Ethernet MAC/Phy Layer

Gigabit Ethernet
4 implements have been designed:

1000 Base-LX
1000 Base-SX
1000 Base-CX
1000 Base-T
1000Base- 1000Bas
FEATURE 1000Base-LX 1000Base-SX
CX e-T
Optical Fiber Optical Fiber
MEDIUM (Multi mode; STP UTP
Single mode) (Multi mode)
Long-Wave Short-Wave
SIGNAL Electrical Electrical
Laser Laser
MAXIMU 550 Meters
M Multi mode;
550 Meters 25M 25M
DISTAN 5000 Meters
ALTTC/CE
DX Faculty/Single mode
KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 137
Ethernet Cabling Spec for UTP

IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
Combines physical configuration of

Ethernet (a bus topology) and the
collision free feature of Token Ring
Token bus is a physical bus that
operates as logical ring using tokens
(Round Robin)
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)
Each transmits only one frame during
its turn
Access method is token passing
Station keeps the token and sends the
frame in the ring
Each station in the ring regenerates the
frame
The intended recipient copies the frame
and send the frame back to sender
The sender receives the frame back,
discards the frame and releases the
token for others
Ring Topology & Token Ring Hub

Token Ring Media Access Control
Token ring uses a controlled-access technique called

token passing.
The “token” is a series of bits, travels between the
computers in a predetermined sequence.
A computer with a message waits to transmit until it
receives a free token. The computer changes the free
token to a busy token and attaches its message to it.
Then it retransmits it on the circuit to the next
computer in the sequence.
The computer receiving the message, changes the
acknowledgement to ACK (or NAK) and sends the
message back to the sender, who creates a new free
token.



Token loss:
The token crashes before being transmitted - lost a free
token
A computer in the ring crashes - lost a busy token
A token is always busy.
A solution for the “lost” token problem:
Designate one computer to be the token monitor and
another computer to be a backup token monitor.
If no token circulated through the network for a certain
length of time or if a busy token circulates too often, the
token monitor will create a new free token (and destroy the
busy token if necessary.)

IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)
T T
T T

FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface,
standardised by ANSI and the ITU-T
High speed alternative to Ethernet and
Token Ring
Copper version of FDDI is known as
CDDI
Uses Token passing as access method
Implemented in dual ring
In most cases, data transmission is
confined to the primary ring
The secondary ring is provided in case
the primary ring fails
MAC Address structure- Token Ring/FDDI
Destination address (LS Bit first and MS bit Lastin each byte -
Big-Endian style)
I/G Individual / group address
0 - Individual address.
1 - Group address.
U/L Universal /local address
0 - Universally administered.
1- Locally administered.
Source address (LS Bit first and MS bit Last in each byte - Big-
Endian style)
I/G bit is always 0. U/L Universal/local address may be 0/1
MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB
I/G U/L
Most Significant Byte Least Significant Byte
Organisationally Unique Identifier (OUI) Vendor Assingned No. (Serial No.)

(3 bytes) (3 bytes)
FDDI-Self Healing Ring
Secondary Ring Primary Ring
Fault

Fiber Distributed Data Interface
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

is a set of standards originally designed
in the late 1980s, but has since made
its way into backbone networks.
FDDI is a token-passing ring network

that operates at 100 Mbps over two-
counter-rotating fiber optic cable rings.

Topology
The FDDI standard assumes a maximum of

1000 stations and a 200-kilometers (120
miles) path that requires a repeater every 2-
kilometers. The second ring is for backup.
Single attachment stations (SAS) and dual-
attachment stations (DAS) are both computer
that can connect to one or both of the rings,
respectively.
If the cable in the FDDI ring is broken, the
ring can still operate in a limited fashion.

Topology

Topology

Media Access Control
The FDDI-MAC scheme uses a variation of

the IEEE 802.5 token-passing standard.
Messages and the token are sent in different frames

separately in a FDDI LAN. A computer can send data only
when it captures the token.
When a computer on an FDDI network waiting for
transmission receives the token, it holds the token and
then transmits all messages that were attached to it. The
computer then transmits whatever messages its wants
before transmitting the token.
When receiver receives the data frame it simply copy the
data frame leaving it to be absorbed by the sender.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface
FDDI (standardized as ANSI X3T9.5)

backbone protocol was developed in the
1980s and popular during the 80s and
90s.
FDDI operates at 100 Mbps over a fiber
optic cable.
Copper Distributed Data Interface
(CDDI) is a related protocol using cat 5
twisted wire pairs.
FDDI’s future looks limited, as it is now
losing market share to Gigabit Ethernet
and ATM.
FDDI Topology (Figure 7-15)
FDDI uses both a physical and logical
ring topology capable of attaching a
maximum of 1000 stations over a
maximum path of 200 km. A repeater is
need every 2 km.
FDDI uses dual counter-rotating rings
(called the primary and secondary).
Data normally travels on the primary
ring.
Stations can be attached to the primary
ring as single attachment stations
(SAS) or both rings as dual attachment
stations (DAS).
Figure 7-15 FDDI Topology
FDDI’s Self Healing Rings
One important feature of FDDI is its

ability to handle a break in the ring to
form a temporary ring out of the pieces
of the two rings.
Figure 7-16, show an example of a
cable break between two dual-
attachment stations.
After the cable break is detected, a
single ring is formed out of the primary
and secondary rings until the cable
break can be repaired.
Figure 7-16 FDDI’s Self-healing Rings
Gigabit Ethernet
Still under development

Retains CSMA/CD protocol and Ethernet
format, ensuring smooth upgrade path
Uses optical fiber over short distances
1-Gbps switching hub provides
backbone connectivity
May not be good for LAN (explain why)
and has been used in backbone
networks for point-to-point connections.

Gigabit Ethernet
1000BASE-LX: Long-wavelength,
supports up to 550m (m-mode fiber) or
5km (single-mode fiber)
1000BASE-SX: Short-wavelength,
supports up to 275 - 550 m(m-mode
fiber)
1000BASE-CX: uses copper jumpers in
a single room or equipment rack
1000BASE-T: uses 4 pairs of Cat-5 UTP

Gigabit Ethernet Media Options

Fast Ethernet Backbone

Fibre Channel
combine the best features of channel

and protocol-based technologies
the simplicity and speed of channel
communications
the flexibility and inter-connectivity that
characterize protocol-based network
communications.
more like a traditional circuit-switched
or packet-switched network, in contrast
to the typical shared-medium LAN

Fiber Channel Network
N_port
F_port

Fibre Channel Elements
Nodes
The end systems
Includes one or more N_ ports for
interconnection
Fabric
Collection of switching elements between
systems
Each element includes multiple F_ ports
Responsible for buffering and for routing
frames between source and destination
nodes

Fibre Channel Goals
Full-duplex links with two Greater connectivity than

fibers per link existing multidrop
Performance from 100 channels
Mbps to 800 Mbps on a Broad availability (i.e.,
single link (200 Mbps standard components)
to1600 Mbps per link) Support for multiple
Support for distances up cost/performance levels,
to 10 km from small systems to
Small connectors supercomputers
High-capacity utilization Ability to carry multiple
with distance existing interface
insensitivity command sets for
existing channel and
network protocols

*Fibre Channel
Protocol Architecture
FC-0 Physical Media: Includes optical fiber,
coaxial cable, and shielded twisted pair, based
on distance requirements
FC-1 Transmission Protocol: Defines the signal
encoding scheme
FC-2 Framing Protocol: Defines topologies,
frame format, flow/error control, and grouping
of frames
FC-3 Common Services: Includes multicasting
FC-4 Mapping: Defines the mapping of various
channel and network protocols to Fibre
Channel

Fibre Channel - Maximum
Distance
800Mbps 400Mbps 200Mbps 100Mbps
Single
Mode 10,000m 10,000m 10,000m 10,000m
M-mode 500m 1,000m 2,000m --
Coaxial
Cable 50m 71m 100m 100m
STP 28m 46m 57m 80m

Present IEEE 802 Project Working Groups
802.1 Higher Layer LAN • 802.11 Wireless LAN Working

Protocols Working Group Group
802.2 Logical Link Control • 802.12 Demand Priority Working
Working Group Group
802.3 Ethernet Working
• 802.14 Cable Modem Working
Group
Group
802.4 Token Bus Working
Group • 802.15 Wireless Personal Area
802.5 Token Ring Working Network (WPAN) Working Group
Group • 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access
802.6 Metropolitan Area Working Group
Network Working Group • 802.17 Resilient Packet Ring
802.7 Broadband TAG Working Group
802.8 Fiber Optic TAG
802.9 Isochronous LAN
Working Group
802.10 Security Working
Group
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) are a

collection of nodes that are grouped together
in a single broadcast domain that is based on
something other than physical location.
A broadcast domain is a network (or portion of
a network) that will receive a broadcast packet
from any node located within that network.
In a typical network, everything on the same
side of the router is all part of the same
broadcast domain.
A switch, with the implemented VLANs on, has
multiple broadcast domains, similar to a
router.
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
VLANs can be created simply by logging into

the switch via TELNET and then entering the
parameters for the VLAN (name, domain and
port assignments).
Once the VLAN is created, any network
segments connected to the assigned ports
will become part of that VLAN.
While you can have more than one VLAN on
a switch, they cannot communicate directly
with one another on that switch.
Communication between VLANs requires the
use of a router.
VLANs canKSK/
ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ span multiple
LAN Technology/ Nov 2004switches, and you
173
VLAN Trunking Protocol
VLAN trunking protocol (VTP) is the

protocol that switches use to communicate
among themselves about VLAN configuration

VLAN Trunking Protocol
In the example:
Each switch has two VLANs. On the first
switch, VLAN A and VLAN B are sent through
a single port (trunked) to the router and
through another port to the second switch.
VLAN C and VLAN D are trunked from the
second switch to the first switch, and
through the first switch to the router. This
trunk can carry traffic from all four VLANs.
The trunk link from the first switch to the
router can also carry all four VLANs. In that
case, this one connection to the router
allows the router to appear on all four VLANs
The VLANs
ALTTC/ DX can
Faculty/ KSK/ communicate
LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 with each other
175

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K.

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 1

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 2

Local Area Network (LAN)

Topology is the geometric representation of all the links

Mesh Topology Star Topology

 Advantages : Multi point, Ease of installation & Uses

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 5

Hybrid Topology HUB

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 6

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 7

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 8

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 9

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 10

The active central element of the

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 11

Operating at the physical layer, hubs

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 12

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 13

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 14

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 15

Allow connections between LANs and to

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 17

Read all frames from each network

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 18

If a bridge receives a packet with a

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 19

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 20

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 21

How do determine onto which LAN segment to

A switch has a switch table

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 23

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 24

Suppose D replies back with frame to C.

collision domain collision domain

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 27

Hosts have direct C’ B

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 28

Like bridges, switches operate at

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 29

Switches operate at the same

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 30

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 31

A simple concept behind switched

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 32

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 33

Switch establishes a connection

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 34

Routes the packet using

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 35

After storing the MAC Address

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 36

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 37

Problems With Layer 2 Switches

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 39

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 40

A Technology that allows a switch to learn

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 41

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 42

A computer (Node A) on the first segment

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 43

Since the switch does not know