A General Knowledge to

Close-Range Photogrammetry

Assoc. Prof Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Introduction
 Close-range photogrammetry is commonly applied to
mapping of objects from a friction of a millimetre to the
very large such as Boeing 747 aircraft or the hulk of an oil
supertanker.
 However, the object distance usually extends to a
maximum limit of 300 meters.
 The end products or derived quantity of close-range
technique may be position, shape, size, volume, angle and
lack of flatness to name a few.
 In some instances, time may be computed which yield
speed, acceleration and deformation.
 Close-range measurement technique may be applied to
any object whose external and internal image can be
obtained with different prospective views.
Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes
Imaging system
 Consists of metric and non-metric cameras and non-
conventional images.
 Metric and Non-metric cameras
 Cameras are classified as metric cameras when the location of
principal point, the principal distance or calibrated focal length,
radial lens distortion, decentring, film deformation are known.
 Others are classified as non-metric cameras.
 The most common way to classify cameras as metric and non-
metric is by the existence or non-existence of fiducial marks.
 Cameras having a reseau (a calibrated array or grid of points in
the focal plane) is the best because they provide an excellent
mean of image coordinate refinement for digital data reduction.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Metric images

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Non-metric images

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Imaging system…
 Non-conventional images
 Some images are not produced by using lens, i.e. central
projection of the object onto an image plane.
 This group consists of X-rays, scanning and transmission electron
microscopes (SEM or TEM), holographic and moire techniques.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Potential of Close-Range Photogrammetry
 The possibilities of close-range photogrammetric
technique for solving measurement problem depend on
a number of factors such as cost, accuracy, effectiveness
and availability.
 Many users of this technique have listed the following
advantages (1/2):
 The object is not touched during measurement
 Data acquisition is rapid and instantaneous
 The photographs are documents related to the time when they
were taken and can be used as legal evidence
 Rigid, fixed, deforming and moving objects may be measured
 Time dependent parameters such as velocity, acceleration and
frequency can be determined
Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes
Potential of Close-Range Photogrammetry
 Many users of this technique have listed the following
advantages (2/2):
 Evaluation of metric photographs can be done at any time in the
office and repetition and amendment are always possible
 Photography and evaluation are flexible and can be easily be
optimised to the project requirements as, for example, in
accuracy
 Complicated shapes and movements are easily measured
 Analytical method provide a means of integration with
succeeding calculations and data handling
 The photographs store both semantic and metric data with very
high density

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Potential of Close-Range Photogrammetry
 There are drawbacks:
 The results of measurement is not instantaneous (very close)
 Except for the simplest problem, the need for specialised and
expensive equipment make the method expensive.
 It must be possible to photograph the object
 Specialized instrumentation and personnel are not always
available

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Theory, Techniques and Problems
 Interior Orientation
 In close-range application, the perpendicular distance
from the perspective centre of the lens system to the
image plane is seldom fixed.
 In this case the term principal distance replaces the
term focal length.
 Because some applications require refocusing for
every exposure, on site calibration (self calibration) is
considered essential.
 Therefore the camera calibration for close-range
application, additional parameters must be computed.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Theory, Techniques and Problems…

 The following parameters are considered

essential, namely:
 Principal distance
 Principal point of autocollimation
 Radial lens distortion
 Decentring distortion
 Out of plane film deformation, and
 Dynamic fluctuation

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Principal distance
 In close-range application the geometric configuration of
the camera stations and the mathematical algorithms
used to determine the coordinates of the object points
could determine this value.
 However, a good approximate value is essential.
 In general, the value of the principal distance is often of
little interest to the photogrammetrist because they
require the coordinates of the object only.
 Often this value is checked after a network adjustment
to determine whether there are any obvious changes in
the camera’s interior orientation.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Principal point of autocollimation
 This is the ideal origin for coordinate system of the
image.
 This value is checked after a network adjustment to
determine the whether there are any obvious
changes in the camera’s interior orientation.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Radial lens distortion
 Two common expressions are used to describe radial
distortion.
 Gaussian radial distortion describes the magnitude of
the radial distortion when the nominal principal distance
is used as a basis for calculations.
 Balanced radial distortion is where a small amount of
principal distance is added or subtracted so that the
followings is established:
 The mean value of the transformed distortion curve out to
certain radial distance is zero
 The mean square value of the distortion out to a certain radial
distance is a minimum, or
 The maximum and minimum values of distortion out to a certain
radial distance are equal.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes
Radial lens distortion…

 Radial distortion is expressed in Gaussian form as a series

of odd powered terms,

 r  k1r  k2 r  k3r  ...

3 5 7

 In a balanced form, the equation becomes:

 r  k0r  k1r  k2r  k3r  ...

b
3 5 7

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Radial lens distortion…

 For non-metric close-range cameras the term k0 r  k1r 3

to describe the lens distortion is adequate.
 It must be noted that radial distortion varies with
focusing of the lens and also within the photographic
depth of field.
 Formulae are available to compute the distortion at a
specific object distance if the distortions of two other
object distances are known, say at a close distance and
at infinity.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Decentring distortion
 All elements in a camera lens system should be aligned
perfectly in the factory.
 Any vertical displacement or rotation of a lens element from
a perfect alignment will cause the geometric displacement of
images known as decentring distortion.
 Decentring distortion is graphed as a profile function and is
represented by: 1
P  r    P  P2 1
2

2 2
r 2

 The parameters  P12  P2 2  ,refer to calibrated values at

infinity focus.
 Here again formulae are available to compute the distortion
at a specific object distance if the distortions for two other
object distances are known at close distance and at infinity.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes
Camera calibration techniques
 In recent years on-the-job calibration and self calibration are
two common techniques used to calibrate close-range
cameras.
 On-the-job calibration:
 is essentially a technique that uses the photography for the
actual measurement of the object to determine the
parameter of the lens (often only the principal distance).
 In this case a control frame with pre-coordinated targets is
placed over the object prior to photography.
 The control frame and object are exposed simultaneously so
that the control information is available on each exposure.
 The advantage of on-the-job calibration is most evident for
non-metric cameras where there is a need to focus the lens
at each camera position.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Camera calibration techniques…
 Self-calibration:
 Uses the observation of the discrete targeted points on the
object to compute the coordinates of the object points and the
parameters of the camera in a bundle adjustment.
 No control targets with fixed coordinates are incorporated in to
the least square solution.
 However, if the fixed coordinates are available then an absolute
orientation can be derived for the camera locations, their
orientations and the coordinates of the object itself.
 Additionally, a scale bar can provide a true object space
coordinates of the observed points.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Self-calibration…
 There are certain requirements that must be met
in order to self-calibrate a camera, but they are
usually easy to do:
 First, the measurement must have what is called roll
diversity. This usually means you must take some
photographs with the camera horizontal and some
photographs with the camera vertical.

What is critical is that you must

have at least one picture that is
rolled approximately 90°
differently than the others.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Self-calibration…

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Self-calibration…
 A second requirement is that you must measure a minimum
number of photographs taken from a minimum number of
different locations.
 You should measure at least six photographs if the object is
two-dimensional (the object is essentially flat) or four
photographs if the object is three-dimensional.
 Also, the photographs should be taken from at least three
different locations.
 Since most jobs will take at least this many photographs there
is usually no reason not to self-calibrate the camera.
 In fact, we strongly recommend that you always take enough
photographs to self-calibrate the camera because it is so
quick and easy to take and measure extra photographs.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Self-calibration…
 A final requirement is that you must have a minimum
number of well distributed points on each photograph and
for the entire measurement.
 Specifically, you should have at least twelve well-distributed
points on each photograph, and at least twenty points for
the entire measurement.
 Well-distributed means the points are distributed fairly
evenly throughout the photograph. It is much better for
example to have twelve points distributed evenly throughout
the picture than to have fifty clustered together in one small
area.
 If you do not happen to need this many points for the
measurement or they are not well distributed, it is
recommended that you add points to the measurement.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Triangulation…
 Triangulation is the principle used by both photogrammetry and
theodolites to produce 3-dimensional point measurements.
 By mathematically intersecting converging lines in space, the
precise location of the point can be determined.
 However, unlike theodolites, photogrammetry can measure
multiple points at a time with virtually no limit on the number of
simultaneously triangulated points.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Resection…
 Resection is the procedure used to determine the final
position and aiming (called the orientation) of the
camera when a picture is taken.
 Typically all the points that are seen and known in XYZ in
the image are used to determine this orientation.
 For a strong resection, you should have at least twelve
well-distributed points in each photograph.
 If your measurement does not have this many points, or
they are not well distributed, it is recommendable to add
points.
 Points that are added to strengthen the solution are
called "fill-in" points.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Resection…
 If the XYZ coordinates of the points on the object are
known (we describe in Triangulation how this is done),
we can compute the camera's orientation. It is
important to realize that both the position and aiming
direction of the camera are needed.
 It is not sufficient to know only the camera's position
since the camera could be located in the same place but
be aimed in any direction.
 Consequently, we must know the camera's position
which is defined by three coordinates, and where it is
aimed which is defined by three angles.
 Thus, although three values are needed to define a
target point (three coordinates for its position), we need
six values to define a picture (three coordinates for
position, and three angles for the aiming direction).

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Resection…

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Bundle Adjustment
 The Bundle Adjustment is
the program that processes
the photographic
measurements to produce
the final XYZ coordinates of
all the measured points.
 In order to do this, it must
Triangulate the target
points, Resect the pictures
and Self-calibrate the
camera.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Bundle Adjustment…
 The Bundle Adjustment program is called STAR, which
stands for Self-Calibration, Triangulation and Resection.
 The real power of the bundle adjustment is that it is able
to do all three of these things simultaneously.

Bundle Adjustment
Self-Calibration + Triangulation + Resection

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

 Bundle Adjustment
Self-Calibration + Triangulation + Resection

Output...
XYZ coordinates (and accuracy estimates) for each point

The XYZ coordinates and 3 aiming angles (and accuracy estimates)

for each picture

The camera calibration parameters (and their accuracy estimates)

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Relative and absolute orientation
 Stereo-close range photogrammetry is still common for
many applications because many objects required depth
perception for interpretation purposes.
 Another example is the capture of object in motion.
 A set of four cameras can be an expensive expenditure
for a project.
 The technique used in the relative and absolute
orientation of a stereo-pair of close-range photograph
in a stereo-digitizer is similar to the technique used in
aerial photogrammetry.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Cranio Capture
 INATEX 2009 – Gold Medal
 Stereo-close range photogrammetry

Mobile Craniofacial Imaging System

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Cranio Stereo

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Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes
 The fundamental principle used by photogrammetry is
triangulation (will be discussed more elsewhere in this subject).
 By taking photographs from at least two different locations,
so-called "lines of sight" can be developed from each camera
to points on the object.
 These lines of sight (sometimes called rays owing to their
optical nature) are mathematically intersected to produce the
3-dimensional coordinates of the points of interest.
 Triangulation is also the principle used by theodolites for
coordinate measurement.
 If you are familiar with these instruments, you will find many
similarities (and some differences) between photogrammetry
and theodolites.
 Even closer to home, triangulation is also the way your two
eyes work together to gauge distance (called depth
perception).

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Cranio Mono Photogrammetric
Triangulation

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

Factors Affecting Accuracy in Close-Range Photogrammetry

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

1. Photo Resolution:
 The higher the resolution of the images, the better chance of
achieving high accuracy because items can be more precisely located.
 Image resolution is defined by the capabilities of your digital camera
or film scanner.
 Trying for the highest resolution you can or can afford is the best
approach.
2. Camera Calibration:
 Calibration is the process of determining the camera's focal length,
format size, principal point, and lens distortion.
3. Angles Between Photos:
 Points and objects that appear only on photographs with very low
subtended angles (for example a point appears in only two
photographs that were taken very close to each other) have much
lower accuracy than objects on photos that are closer to 90 degrees
apart.
 Making sure the camera positions have good spread will provide the
best results.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

4. Photo Orientation Quality:
 One factor that contributes a lot to the accuracy of projects is
an accurate orientation for every camera position.
 The orientation quality improves as the number of well-
positioned points increases and also as the points cover a
greater percentage of the photograph area.
5. Photo Redundancy:
 A point's or object's position is usually more accurately
computed when it appears on many photographs - rather than
the minimum two photographs.
6. Targets:
 The accuracy of a 3D point is tied to the precision of its
locations in the images.
 This image positioning can be improved by using targets.

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes

 Thank you
For further information, please contact:

Dr. Zulkepli Majid

Photogrammetry and Laser Scanning Research Group
Faculty of Geoinformation Science and Engineering
Univeristi Teknologi Malaysia
Phone: 07-5530829, Fax: 07-5566163, Mobile: 017-7902883
e-mail: zulkeplimajid@utm.my

Dr Zulkepli Majid - Lecture Notes