V In science, the ability to do work

V Energy = force x distance

V Measured in Joules
V 1J = 1N x 1m
V 1 kJ = 1000J
V Rinetic contraction of muscle fibres
V Chemical energy stored in food
V Heat energy lost to surroundings
V Sound vibrations of vocal cords
V Light energy trapped by photosynthesis
V Electrical impulses transmitted along a neurone
V Energy is transferred from one form to
another
V Energy is never created or destroyed (the law
of conservation of energy)
V All chemicals contain energy within their
bonds
V This energy is transferred during a chemical
reaction
V C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 +3H2O
V Products contain less energy than reactants
V 1400kJ per mole released as heat
V à
 reaction Ȃ releases energy
V à 

reaction


 Ȃ releases heat
V Many metabolic processes are à

and need energy to drive them, e.g. protein
synthesis
V espiration releases energy for processes
which require it.
V Combustion reactions release energy as

V Too much heat would 

cells
V Intermediate source of chemical energy, ATP
V A

   

A

  

V Phosphorylated nucleotide
V Has universal role of immediate energy
source in cells
V Cannot be transported or stored
V Must be made continuously
 ATP + H2O ADP + Pi

Hydrolysis releases 30.6 kJ

per mole

A metabolically active cell may require up to


 ATP molecules every second
V ATP Animation
V Formation of ATP
1) A 


A 

(building macromolecules
from components)
- formation of polysaccharides
- protein synthesis
- DNA replication
2) 



- muscle contraction
- ciliary action
- spindle movement in cell division
3) A
 
A
 (movement of molecules
against the concentration gradient)
- ion pumps
4) 


- formation of vesicles
5) A 

 
A 

 (making chemicals more
reactive)
- phosphorylation of glucose at start of glycolysis
V A series of reactions in a cell
V Product of one reaction is substrate for next
V Each reaction catalysed by a specific enzyme

A enzyme 1 B enzyme 2 C enzyme 3 D enzyme 4 E

V Enzymes often arranged close to one another

bound to membranes in cells
V 






V Direct conversion may require a large amount
of energy
V Intermediates may be useful products or
form the start of other metabolic pathways
V Final products may act as inhibitors Ȃ


  or
 
V A
  
A 

- involve build up of small, simple molecules
into larger ones
- require energy input
- protein synthesis and photosynthesis
  

- break down of large molecules into smaller
ones
- release energy
- hydrolysis of starch
  combine with enzyme or substrate
 Ȃ
making E-S complex form more easily
e.g. salivary amylase and Cl- ions
P
Ȃ non protein organic co-factors
P

permanently attached to an enzyme
e.g. catalase has organic haem group



Ȃ



 small non protein organic molecules
which binds temporarily with enzymes when it
forms E-S complex and acts as a carrier
e.g. NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
V £orks with 

 
enzymes which
catalyse removal of hydrogen
V Accepts H atoms and passes to another carrier
V In cell exists as `AD+
V Carries hydrogen as NADH and a proton

2H 2H+ + e-

NAD+ + 2H+ +2e- NADH + H+

°   

Addition of oxygen emoval of oxygen
emoval of hydrogen Addition of hydrogen
emoval of electrons Addition of electrons
V Four stages
V 1) Ñ
6C glucose 2 x 3C pyruvate
V 2) O

3C pyruvate 2C acetyl CoA
V 3) R
 

2C acetyl CoA CO2
V 4) à
T  
Most ATP made here
V  
º 
V Takes place in 
V Ñlucose is phosphorylated (requires ATP)
V Phosphorylated glucose split into 2 triose
phosphate molecules
V Triose phosphate loses phosphate group to
ADP making ATP
V Triose oxidised by losing H atoms to co-enzyme
NAD
V P 
(pyruvic acid) formed
V ATPproduced
ATP
V 

`ADmade


`AD (NADH + H+)
V 2ATP used for phosphorylation
V 4 ATP made during glycolysis
V Net gain of 2ATP
V educed NAD passes into electron transport
chain and can generate 6ATP per glucose
V Ñlycolysis
V If  
 available pyruvate enters
 of
mitochondria
V Each pyruvate is 
   
 and loses C as
CO2
V 2C fragment = acetyl group
V Picked up by coenzyme A
V Oxidised by NAD
2C +CoA + NAD+ acetyl CoA + CO2 + NADH + H+
A
Aenters Rrebǯs cycle
V A
A
V od shaped structure with double membrane
V °



 
- permeable to nutrient
°



 

molecules, ions, ADP and ATP due to presence of
porins
V 



 
site of electron transport chain




 

and permeable only to CO2, O2 and H2O. Cristae,
folds on inner surface which increase surface area
for ATP production.
V   Ȃ mixture of enzymes for ATP production,
mitochondrial ribosomes, tNA and DNA.
V Tricarboxylic acid or citric acid cycle
V Involves 2 types of reaction
D
   
V Catalysed by 
   
enzymes
V Involves 

 


 atoms from intermediates
and formation of CO2
D

 
V °   of intermediate followed by 

 
 atoms, catalysed by 

 
enzymes
V Hydrogen taken up by acceptor molecules NAD
and FAD (flavinadenine dinucleotide)
V 2C Acetyl CoA combines with a 4C compound to form
a 6C compound
V 6C compound undergoes a series of reactions
eventually losing 2C to regenerate the 4C compound
V The C atoms are lost as CO2
V The 6C compound is oxidised by removal of H atoms
V H atoms pass to hydrogen acceptor molecules
3 molecules of reduced NAD and 1 molecule of
reduced FAD (FADH2)
V 1 ATP synthesised
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

The story so far:

V Ñlucose has been used up in glycolysis
V CO2 was produced in the Link eaction and
Rrebǯs cycle
V But we have not yet seen the use of O2 or
production of water
V These happen in the electron transport chain
(ETC)
V Electrons from NADH or FADH2 are passed
through a chain of  




V At the end of the chain molecular oxygen is


to water



V Electron transport is 
 to the formation of
ATP from ADP and Pi
V The 2 processes occur simultaneously
V Electron carriers are large protein complexes on
the 



 

  




 

  arranged
in order of electron affinity
V flavoproteins, quinones and cytochromes
V Start of chain
NADH + H+ NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e-
V à
 are passed from carrier to carrier
down the chain
V At the end of the chain molecular oxygen
accepts electrons and protons produced from
oxidation of NADH at the start
1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O
V This takes places at the final electron carrier
 

  

V As electrons pass along the chain they lose
energy
V This energy is used to 


through
the inner mitochondrial membrane setting up
a 
  


  
.
V As protons re-enter ATP  
 use their
ATP 

energy to make ATP from ADP and Pi.
V 





 


 

V °  
   
 
   

ATP  


Ñlycolysis 2
2 x NADH + H+ (glycolysis) 6 (or 4)
2 x ATP in Rrebǯs 2
2 x NADH + H+ (Link) 6
6 x NADH + H= (Rrebǯs) 18
2 x FADH2 (Rrebǯs) 4
Total 38 (or 36)
V Overview of espiration
V Car engine 20% efficient
V Complete combustion of o2 releases 2870 kJ
V 38 moles ATP = 38 x 30.6 = 1162.8 kJ
V 1162.8/2870 x 100 = 40% efficiency
ATP produced
CO2 formed
6C into 3C
Mitochondria
NAD reduced to NADH + H+

V ETC animation and quiz

V  sed by organisms in O2 deficient
environments or to maintain supplies of ATP
when temporarily deprived of O2
V e.g bacteria in stagnant water
V e.g muscles during continuous exercise
V Different processes in yeast and mammals.
V Single celled fungus found on surface of fruits
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

V Ñlycolysis takes place as normal

2ATP 2ADP + Pi

Ñlucose 2 x pyruvate
+
NAD NADH + H
V Pyruvate is then 
   
 forming
CO2 and
  
V Ethanal is reduced to ethanol by NADH + H+
V egeneration of NAD+ enables glycolysis to
continue
V Only 2 ATP produced as NADH + H+ doesnǯt
enter mitochondria for oxidative
phosphorylation
V During vigorous exercise not enough O2 for
anaerobic respiration
V Pyruvate is converted to lactate
CH3COCOO- + NADH + H+ CH3CHOHCOO- +NAD+
V Lactate is 3C compound
V No decarboxylation
V CO2 not produced
V Build up causes muscle fatigue.
V After exercise  
 in liver to  
then
respired aerobically to CO2 and H2O
V Oxygen needed to fully oxidise the lactate
produced during anaerobic repiration
V Hydrolysis of polymers e.g. starch/glycogen
into glucose
V Fructose/galactose chemically modified to
enter glycolysis
V Lipids/proteins also oxidised to yield energy

 
à
!"#$

Carbohydrate 17
Lipid 39
Protein 23
V £hen energy demands are great or
carbohydrates in short supply triglycerides
stored in fatty tissue are respired
V 
 to glycerol and fatty acids
V Ñlycerol (3C) converted to triose sugar
dihydroxyacetone phosphate which is
converted to 
 

%   

an intermediate in glycolysis
V Produces 19 ATP per molecule
V Fatty acids are  
 and fed into Rrebǯs
cycle as A
A
V Energy yield depends on length of
  chains
V  p to 150 ATP per molecule
V Only respired in cases of 


  
V 
 to amino acids
V Amino acids 

 

V Amino group converted to 


and excreted
V   
fed into glycolysis or
  

Rrebǯs cycle directly or after modification
 = Volume of CO2 produced
Volume of O2 used

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

 = 6/6 = 1 (as one mole of any gas occupies the same volume)
espiration of stearic acid

C18H36O2 + 26O2 18CO2 + 18H2O + ATP

Calculate the  value.

V Lipids 0.7
V Proteins 0.8/0.9
V Carbohydrates 1.0

V Organisms rarely respire just one type of

substrate
V Can be calculated by measuring volume CO2
produced and volume O2 used over period of
time using a 




V uestions 1
V uestions 2