Statistical

Process Control

Quality & Productivity Society of Pakistan

Contents

 Quality & TQM

 Basic Statistics

 Seven QC Tools

 Control Charts

 Process Capability Analysis

CUSTOMERS
“Anyone who thinks customers
are not important should try
doing without them for a
week”

Source : Unknown
Types of Customers

 External Customers
 Final Customers/End-Users
 Internal Customers
Types of Customers

“The next operation as customer”

- Kaoru Ishikawa
Types of Customers

Exercise

 External Customers - 3 main customers

(describe type)
 Internal Customers - 3 main customers
Sources of Variation in
Production Processes
What is Quality ?
Quality

Fitness for Use

(Juran 1988)
Quality in goods
 Performance
 Features
 Durability
 Reliability
 Conformance
 Serviceability
 Aesthetics
 Perceived Quality
Quality in Services
 Tangibles
 Reliability
 Responsiveness
 Competence
 Courtesy
 Security
 Access; Communication &Understanding the
Customer
 What Is Quality?
The Experts Say...

 Conformance to requirements (Philip B. Crosby)

 Zero Defects (Philip B. Crosby)
 Fitness for use (Joseph M. Juran)
Reduced variation (W. Edwards Deming)
Quality Control Evolution

Evolution

TQM
Quality
Assurance
Quality
Control

Foreman
Operator
1900 1918 1920 1940 1980
Total Quality
Management
Total Quality Management

Achieve customer satisfaction through

continually improving all work process and
participation of employees.
 Total Quality Management
Elements
 Leadership
 Employee Involvement

 Product/Process Excellence

 Customer Focus

5-8
Major Contributors to the
development of TQM
 Dr Edwards Deming
 Dr Joseph Juran
 Philip Crosby
 Armand Feigenbaum
 Prof. Kaori Ishikawa
 Genichi Taguchi
 Musaaki Imai
 It’s not the tip
of the iceberg
It’s what you
that’s the problem….can’t see…
Variation results in cost

Waste
Rejects Customer Returns

2-3%
2-3% Testing Costs Inspection Costs

Rework Recalls

20-40%
20-40%
Complaint Customer
Handling (invisible costs) Allowances
Excessive Field
Service Costs Unused Incorrectly
Capacity Completed Sales
Excessive Lost goodwill Order
Overtime Planning
Pricing or Overdue Delays Time with Delays
Billing Errors Receivables Employee Expediti Dissatisfied Excess Inventory
Turnover ng Costs Customer
Development Unmeasured Late Incorrect
Cost of Failed Productivity Paperwor Orders
Products k Shipped
Basic Statistics
Population
Any well-defined group of individuals
whose characteristics are to be studied.
Students of a college
Books in Library
Shirts in Market
Fishes in Lake
Sample

Part of the population which is to be

studied.
Variable

Characteristics of the individuals of a

population or sample which varies from
individual to individual.

Marks obtained by Student

Height of Students
Temperature of Person
Dimensions of Product
Statistics

Statistics are numericals in any field of

study.

Statistics deals with techniques or

methods for collecting, analysing and
drawing conclusions from data.
ACCURATE & PRECISE
VERY CLOSE TOGETHER (LOW VARIATION) AND CENTERED ON TARGET (TRUE VALUE)

THE GOAL OF ANY PROCESS

PRECISE AND ACCURATE
 Target first,
variation then.
1 2

3
Variation first,
target then.
1

2
Which pilot do you want to fly
with?

A-1

A-4

B-4
B-3
B-2
B-1

A-2

A-3
Quality Engineering Terminology

Specifications
Quality characteristics being measured are
often compared to standards or
specifications.
 Nominal or target value

 Upper Specification Limit (USL)

 Lower Specification Limit (LSL)

Quality Engineering Terminology

 When a component or product does not

meet specifications, they are considered to
be nonconforming.
 A nonconforming product is considered
defective if it has one or more defects.
 Defects are nonconformities that may
seriously affect the safe or effective use of
the product.
 Types of Data
Variables "Things we measure"
• Length • Height • Diameter
• Weight • Volume • Tensile Strength
• Time • Temperature • Strength of Solution

Attributes “Things we count”

• Number or percent of defective items in a lot.
• Number of defects per item.
• Types of defects.
• Value assigned to defects
(minor=1, major=5, critical=10)

5-
 Averages
 Mean, median and mode

Weekly rent paid by 15 students sharin g accommodation, 1998 (£)

45 35 51 45 49
51 40 42 46 36
37 42 47 49 42

 Mean (or average)

add observations and divide by number of observations 657/15 = 43.8

x= ∑x
n
Averages… 2
 Median – the middle observation.
 Arrange the observations and find the middle
one (n+1)/2th observation
 35 36 37 40 42 42 42 45 45 46 47 49 49 51 51

the 8th observation (15+1)/2 is 45

 Mode – the most frequent observation

in this case 42
MEASURES OF DISPERSION

The dispersion is defined as the scatter or

spread of the values from one another
or from some common value.
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

68.26%

95.46%

99.73%

-3σ -2σ -1σ µ 1σ 2σ 3σ

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

ALTERNATIVE TO CENTRAL TENDENCY

 RANGE (R): HIGHEST – LOWEST [Max – Min]

 VARIANCE: How data is spread out, about the mean.

___

s2 =
∑ (x − x ) 2

n −1
 STANDARD DEVIATION: Positive Square Root of
Variance.
___

S=
∑ (x − x ) 2

n −1
 Spreads
 Standard Deviation (SD) calculated as below
 calculate residuals – individual observation minus
mean square and sum these
 divide by number of observations minus 1 [gives
Variance]
 take square root for Standard Deviation
 2
 ∑( i
Y − Y)
SD =  
 n −1 

 example peoples heights (cm)

 190 185 182 208 186 187 189 179 183 191 179

 mean 187.18

 SD 8.02
STATISTICAL PROCESS
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
CONTROL

The statistical process control allows the

analysis of the current trend of the
production, in order to detect possible
deviations from the desired target,
independently on the deviation of the single
object.
 WHAT IS
WHAT IS SPC
SPC ??

It is important to note that the SPC

is not the cure for Quality and
Production problems. SPC will
only help leading to the
discovery of problems and
identifying the type and degree
of corrective action required.
CONTROL LOOP

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

MEASUREMENT
ADJUST

DECIDE ON
FIX? STATISTICS

ID GAPS

EXAMINE
Selection of improvement steps
(1)
(1) Select
Selectaatheme
theme

(2)
(2) Grasp
Graspcurrent
currentsituation
situation

Grasp
Grasp“status
“statusto
tobe
(3)
(3) attained”
attained”
be

(4)
(4) Analyze
Analyzecauses
causes

(5)
(5) Propose
Proposesolution
solution

Implement
Implementsolutions
solutionsand
(6)
(6) evaluate results
evaluate results
and

(7)
(7) Follow-up
Follow-up&&Standardize
Standardize

(8)
(8) Review
Review
Seven QC Tools
QC tools
QC
QCtools
tools(7
(7QC
QCTools,
Tools,New
New77QC
QCTools)
Tools)used
usedin
in
solving
solving(or
(orimproving)
improving)various
varioustypes
typesof
ofproblems
problems
that
thatoccur
occurin
inworkshops.
workshops.
Whether
Whetherininidentifying
identifying causes
causes of
ofproblems
problems or
orin
in
working
workingoutouttheir
theircountermeasures,
countermeasures,effective
effectiveuse
useof
of
QC
QCtechniques
techniquescancanproduce
producegood
goodresults
resultsquickly
quickly
and
andefficiently.
efficiently.
ItItisisimportant
importantto
toget
getused
usedto
tothe
the use
use of
of
77QCQCTools.
Tools.You
Youare
areencouraged
encouragedto to
collect
collectactual
actualdata
dataand
andpractice
practiceusing
using
them.
them.
Use of QC tools
Fact
In QC-style problem-solving
activity facts are grasped
Collect data . Check sheet based on data and analyzed
scientifically. Judgments are
made based on facts to take
concrete actions
Process data . Use of QC tools
In a situation where several
factors exert influence in a
complex manner, QC tools
Judgem e . Adding skills and are indispensable to
nt experience
correctly grasp cause-and-
effect relationships in order
Countermeasures and to arrive at objective
actions
judgments
 Benefits of using QC tools

Cat egor i es
Check sheet
Gr aphs
Par et o di agr am
Scat t er di agr am
Hi st ogr am
Cont r ol char t
Cause and ef f ect di agr am
Af f i ni t y char t
Li nkage char t
Syst em di agr am
Mat r i x di agr am
PDPC
Ar r ow di r agr am
Fl ow char t s
Br ai n st or mi ng
Br ai n wr i t i ng
Tool

STEPS

Sel ec t a t heme ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Shape a vi s i on ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
As s es s t he s i t uat i on ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Anal y z e c aus es ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Devi s e s ol ut i ons ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
I mpl ement a nd ev a l ua t e r○
es ul○t s ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
F ol l ow- up ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Revi ew ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Benefits of using QC tools

1. The situation can be grasped correctly, rather than

based on experience or intuition
2. Objective judgment can be made
3. The overall picture can be grasped
4. Problem points and shortcomings become clear
so that action can be taken
5. Problems can be shared
Problem solving and QC tools
Select a theme
- Define focus areas - Look at the control situation - Look at trends and habits -Process capability
150
100 30
100 133.0
140
80
80 132.0 130 25
60 131.0
60 120
20
40 40 130.0 110

20 20 129.0 100 15

0 0 128.0 90
10
配線 ミス

誤組付け

加工部品不良

組 付 け破 損

圧着不良

購入部品不良

そ の他

127.0 80
70 5
126.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 60
1月 2月 3月 4月 5月 6月 0
9.78 9.83 9.88 9.93 9.98 10.03 10.08 10.13 10.18 10.23

Pareto diagram Control chart Line chart Histogram

Get hold of a vision Get hold of the current situation Analyze the factors
- 3 factors of targets - Activity Cause/result relationship, Take data
plan 　
● ：号機
1 ▲ ：号機
2

130 ス ケ ジ ュー ル 表 7月14日
●▲ ●●
7月15日
●●
7月16日
●●
7月17日
●●▲
7月18日
●●
7月19日
●●●
1号機 2号機 合計

縫製 14 2 16
項目 担 当 者 ４月 ５月 ６月 ７月 ８月 ９月 １０月１１月 １２月 １月 ２月 ３月
120 テー マ 選 定 福島 仕上がり
●●▲ ● ▲ ●● ● ●● ●●●
11 2 13

●●▲ ●●●●● ●●● ●▲ ● ●●●●●●●●●●

110 あ る べ き 姿 の 把 握秋 田 汚れ
●● ●
25 2 27

●●●▲ ●▲ ●● ●▲ ●● ●● ●▲ ●●●
現状の把握 青森 キズ 19 6 25
100 ●▲● ●▲ ●

▲ ●● ●● ●● ▲● ●● ▲ ●●
原因の解析 福岡 その他 11 3 14

90 解決策の選定 山口
合計 26 11 11 11 13 23 80 15 95

80

70
効果の把握

フ ォ ロ ー ア ップ
静岡

三重 cause and effect diagram Check

目
sheet
レビ ュー 愛知

標
View at things in layers
60
：計 画 ：実 績
1月
2月
3月
4月
5月
6月
7月
8月
9月

1月
2月
3月
10月
11月
12月

Brain writing Affinity chart Line chart Gantt chart Confirm interrelations

Follow-up and review Confirm the effect Look at changes over time
- What, how much and until what time? 130 133.0
120 132.0
● ： 1号 機 ▲ ： 2号 機
7月 1 4日7月 15日7月 1 6日7月 1 7日7月 1 8日7月 19日1号 機2号 機 合 計 1 3 3 .0 131.0
Solutions
110
●▲ ●● ●● ●● ●●▲ ●● ●●●
縫製 14 2 16 1 3 2 .0
100 130.0
●●▲ ● ▲ ●● ● ●● ●●● 1 3 1 .0
仕上がり 11 2 13
1 3 0 .0 129.0
●●▲ ●●●●● ●●● ●▲ ● ●●●●●●●●●●
90
is effective

汚れ 27
25 2
128.0
Measures

1 2 9 .0

proposal
●● ●

●●●▲ ●▲ ●● ●▲ ●● ●● ●▲ ●●● 80
1 2 8 .0
キズ
●▲ ● ●▲ ●
19 6 25 127.0
1 2 7 .0 70
▲ ●● ●● ●● ▲● ●● ▲ ●●
その他 11 3 14
1 2 6 .0
126.0
合計 26 11 11 11 13 23 80 15 95 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 01 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 92 02 12 22 32 42 5 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
9月
1月
2月
3月
4月
5月
6月
7月
8月

1月
2月
3月
月
月
月
11
10

12

Line chart Control chart (for

Check sheet Control chart
analysis)
Seven QC Tools

 Stratification
Stratification Basic
Basic processing
processing performed
performed when
when collecting
collecting data
data

 Pareto
 Pareto Diagram
Diagram To
To identify
identify the
the current
current status
status and
and issues
issues
 Cause
 Cause and
and Effect
Effect Diagram
Diagram To
To identify
identify the
the cause
cause and
and effect
effect relationship
relationship
 Histogram
 Histogram To
To see
see the
the distribution
distribution of
of data
data
 Scatter
 Scatter Diagram
Diagram To
To identify
identify the
the relationship
relationship between
between two
two things
things
 Check
 Check Sheet
Sheet To
To record
record data
data collection
collection
 Control
 Control Chart
Chart To
To find
find anomalies
anomalies and
and identify
identify the
the current
current status
status
 Graph
 Graph // Flow
Flow Charts
Charts To
To find
find anomalies
anomalies and
and identify
identify the
the current
current status
status
 New Seven QC Tools

Affinity
 Affinity Chart
Chart Grasp
Grasp current
current situation
situation and
and problems
problems
Linkage
 Linkage Chart
Chart Sort
Sort out
out relationships
relationships in
in the
the situation
situation
System
 System chart
chart Systematic
Systematic sorting
sorting of
of the
the situation
situation
Matrix
 Matrix diagram
diagram Grasp
Grasp aa relationship
relationship between
between two
two matters
matters
PDPC
 PDPC methods
methods Risk
Risk management
management basedbased on
on forecasting
forecasting
Arrow
 Arrow diagram
diagram Plan
Plan progress
progress
Matrix
 Matrix data
data analysis
analysis Correlation
Correlation analysis
analysis
Stratification
Stratification
Stratification means
means to to “divide
“divide the
the whole
whole
into
into smaller
smaller portions
portions according
according to to certain
certain
criteria.”
criteria.” In
In case
case ofof quality
quality control,
control,
stratification
stratification generally
generally means
means to to divide
divide data
data
into
into several
several groups
groups according
according to to common
common
factors
factors oror tendencies
tendencies (e.g.,
(e.g., type
type ofof defect
defect
and
and cause
cause of of defect).
defect).
Dividing
Dividing into
into groups
groups “fosters
“fosters understanding
understanding
of
of aa situation.”
situation.” This
This represents
represents the the basic
basic
principle
principle ofof quality
quality control.
control.
Example usage
Item Method
Method of
of Stratification
Stratification
Hour,
Hour, a.m.,
a.m., p.m.,
p.m., immediately
immediately after
after start
start of
of work,
work,
Elapse
Elapse of
of time
time shift,
shift, daytime,
daytime, nighttime,
nighttime, day,
day, week,
week, month
month

Variations
Variations among
among Worker,
Worker, age,
age, male,
male, female,
female, years
years of
of experience,
experience,
workers
workers shift,
shift, team,
team, newly
newly employed,
employed, experienced
experienced worker
worker

Processing
Processing method,
method, work
work method,
method, working
working
Variations among
Variations among conditions (temperature, pressure, and speed),
work methods conditions (temperature, pressure, and speed),
work methods temperature
temperature
Variations
Variations among
among Measurement
Measurement tool,
tool, person
person performing
performing
measurement/
measurement/ measurement,
measurement, method
method of of measurement,
measurement, inspector,
inspector,
inspection
inspection methods
methods sampling,
sampling, place
place of
of inspection
inspection
Pareto Diagram

AAPareto
Paretodiagram
diagramisisaacombination
combinationof ofbar
barand
andline
linegraphs
graphsofof
accumulated
accumulateddata,data,where
wheredata
dataassociated
associatedwith
withaaproblem
problem(e.g.,
(e.g.,
aadefect
defectfound,
found,mechanical
mechanicalfailure,
failure,ororaa
complaint
complaintfrom
fromaacustomer)
customer)arearedivided
divided
（件 ） （％ ）
１６０ １００

into smaller groups by cause or

into smaller groups by cause or by by ｎ＝１６０

１２０
phenomenon
phenomenonand andsorted,
sorted,for
forexample,
example,
by
bythe
thenumber
numberof ofoccurrences
occurrencesor orthe
the
８０ ５０

amount
amountof ofmoney
moneyinvolved.
involved. (The
(Thename
name ４０

“Pareto”
“Pareto”came
camefrom
fromananItalian
Italian ０ ０

mathematician who created the diagram.)

mathematician who created the diagram.)
Ａ Ｂ Ｃ Ｄ Ｅ
When is it used and what results will be obtained?

Which is the most serious problem among many problems? It is mainly

used to prioritize action.

Usage Results
Results
••Allows
Allows clarification
clarification of
of
••Used to identify a problem.
••Used important
important tasks.
tasks.
Used to
to identify
identify the
the cause
cause of
of aa
••Allows
problem.
problem. Allows identification
identificationof of aa
•Used
Used to
to review
review the
the effects
effects of
of anstarting
anstarting point
point (which
(which task
task
action
action to
to be
be taken.
taken. to
to start
start with).
with).
••Used
Used to
to prioritize
prioritize actions.
actions. ••Allows
Allows projection
projection of
of the
the
effects
effects ofof aa measure
measure to
to be
be
[Used during phases to monitor
[Used during phases to monitor taken.
the
the situation,
situation, analyze
analyze causes, and taken.
causes, and
review
review effectiveness
effectiveness of
of an
an action.
action.]]
Example usage of Pareto
Diagram
(1) Assessment using (2) Confirmation of Effect
Pareto diagram (Comparison)
(prioritization)
Frequently used to
•To identify a course of check the effect of an
action to be emphasized improvement.
using a variety of data.
Details of A
Improv
ed!

B C D I J K L
A
W X Y Z X Y W Z
Cause and Effect Diagram
AA cause
cause andand effect
effect diagram
diagram isis “a“a fish-bone
fish-bone diagram
diagram
that
that presents
presents aa systematic
systematic representation
representation of of the
the
relationship
relationship between
between the the effect
effect (result)
(result) and
and affecting
affecting
factors
factors (causes).
(causes).
Solving
Solving aa problem
problem in in aa scientific
scientific manner
manner requires
requires
clarification
clarification ofof aa cause
cause andand effect
effect relationship,
relationship, where
where
the
the effect
effect (e.g.,
(e.g., the
the result
result of
of work)
work) varies
varies according
according
to
to factors
factors (e.g.,
(e.g., facilities
facilities and
and machines
machines used,used, method
method
of
of work,
work, workers,
workers, and and materials
materials and
and parts
parts used).
used). ToTo
obtain
obtain aa good
good workwork result,
result, we
we must
must identify
identify the
the
effects
effects ofof various
various factors
factors and
and develop
develop measures
measures to to
improve
improve thethe result
result accordingly.
accordingly.
 Cause and Effect Diagram
Name of big bone factor
mini bone small bone

characteristics
big bone

medium

(result)
bone back bone

factors (causes)
When is it used and what results will be obtained?

A cause and effect diagram is mainly used to study the cause of a

certain matter. As mentioned above, the use of a cause and effect
diagram allows clarification of a causal relation for efficient problem-
solving. It is also effective in assessing measures developed and can
be applied to other fields according to your needs.

Usage Results
Results
••Used
Used when
when clarifying
clarifying a
a cause and ••Can
cause and Can obtain
obtain aa clearclear overall
overall
effect relationship.
effect relationship. picture
picture ofof causal
causal relation.
relation. (A
(A
change in in the
the cause
cause triggers
••[Used
[Used during
during a
a phase
phase to achange
to triggers
analyzecauses.]
analyzecauses.] a variation
variation in in the
the result.)
result.)
••Used
Used to
to develop
develop ••Can
Can clarify
clarify the the cause
cause and
and
effect
effect relationship.
relationship.
••countermeasures.
countermeasures.
••[Used
••Can
Can list
list up
up all
all causes
causes to
to
during a phase to plan
[Used during a phase to plan identify
countermeasures.]
countermeasures.] identify important
important causes.
causes.
••Can
Can determine
determine the
the direction
direction of
of
action
action (countermeasure).
(countermeasure).
Histogram
Articles produced with the
same conditions may vary in
terms of quality specification range
characteristics.
A histogram is used to

Y axis (no. of occurrences)

judge whether such variations
are normal or abnormal.
First, the range of data
variations are divided into
several sections with a given
interval, and the number of
data in each section is
counted to produce a
range of variation
frequency table. Graphical X axis
representation of this table is (measured values)

a histogram.
 When is it used and what results will be
obtained?
A histogram is mainly used to analyze a process by
examining the location of the mean value in the graph or
degree of variations, to find a problem point that needs to
be improved. Its other applications are listed in the table
below. Usage Results
Results
[Used
[Used during
during phases
phases to to monitor
monitor the
the Can
Can identify
identify the
the location
location of
of the
the
situation,
situation, analyze
analyze causes,
causes, and
and review
review mean
mean (central)
(central) value
value or
or degree
degree ofof
effectiveness
effectiveness of
of an
an action.]
action.] variations.
variations.
Used
Used to
to assess
assess the
the actual
actual conditions.
conditions. Can
Can find
find out
out the
the scope
scope of
of aa defect
defect
by
byinserting
insertingstandard
standardvalues.
values.
Used to analyze a process to identify
Used to analyze a process to identify a a
problem
problem point
point that
that needs
needs toto be
be improved
improved CanCan identify
identify the
the condition
condition of of
by
by finding
finding the
the location
location of
of the
the mean
mean value
value distribution
distribution (e.g.,
(e.g., whether
whether there
there isis
or
or degree
degree of
of variations
variations in
in the
the graph.
graph. an
anisolated,
isolated,extreme
extremevalue).
value).
Used
Used to
to examine
examine that
that the
the target
target quality
quality is
is
maintained
maintained throughout
throughout the
the process.
process.
Histogram--Example No. 1

Data sheet of lengths of cut steel wire [Specification: 255±5cm] (n=100)

№ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 255 259 257 254 253 254 253 257 258 252
2 253 256 255 255 256 255 257 255 256 258
3 257 255 256 251 255 253 255 256 254 256
4 257 255 257 254 254 260 258 253 260 255
5 255 252 255 253 253 258 253 259 255 257
6 253 257 258 256 253 254 255 254 257 253
7 255 254 253 255 257 252 254 256 255 255
8 254 254 254 254 255 255 257 255 253 254
9 258 256 253 256 255 254 255 256 256 256
10 256 254 255 257 254 254 259 253 258 254
Ｓ 253 252 253 251 253 252 253 253 253 252
Ｌ 258 259 258 257 257 260 259 259 260 258
(Unit;cm)
 Histogram--Example No.2

(Frequency Distribution Table Cutting Length of Steel Wire)

(Standard: 255± 5cm)
Central Valee of
№ Section Each Section Frequency Marking No. of Occurrences

1 250.5- 251.5 251 1

2 251.5- 252.5 252 3
3 252.5- 253.5 253 15
4 253.5- 254.5 254 19
5 254.5- 255.5 255 24
6 255.5- 256.5 256 14
7 256.5- 257.5 257 12
8 257.5- 258.5 258 7
9 258.5- 259.5 259 3
10 259.5- 260.5 260 2
Total 100
Histogram--Example No.3

Standard Standard
Lower Limit Upper Limit
Products
Standard Value

25 X
Standard Central
N=100 =255.19
20

15

10

0
250 252 254 256 258 260
[Histogram of Cutting Length of Steel Wire]
Interpretation of Data Depicted in
Histogram
Name Description Example Cause

A peak in the A so-called “normal

center, gradually distribution.”
declining in both Means that this
General directions. particular process
Shape Almost symmetric. is stable.

The average value Possible causes

(peak) is off- include the
centered. standard value
The shape of inserted off the
distribution shows center or the
Trailing Type a relatively steep component of an
Type e incline on one side impurity close to 0
and a moderate (zero). The stability
slope on the other. of the process is
Asymmetric. the same as that
described for the
General Shape.
 Name Description Example Cause

Less number of data This shape indicates

around the center of the overlapping of two
distribution. different distributions,
Two peaks, one on when there is a
variation between two
each side. machines or two
Twin-peak workers performing
the same task, often
Shape caused by one of them
doing the task in a
wrong way.

Small variations in the Caused by the same

number of data around reason described
the center of above, but with less
Plateau distribution, forming a variation.
Shape plateau.
 Name Description Example Cause

The average value is Distribution A portion of distribution

extremely off-centered, where defects depicted by dashed
showing a steep seem to be lines in the diagram
decline on one side excluded. has been removed for
and a moderate slope some reason.
on the other. For example, when
Asymmetric. defective products are
found during an
Precipitous inspection before
Shape shipping and removed
from the lot, the results
of an acceptance
inspection performed
on that lot by the
customer will show this
shape of distribution.
 Name Description Example Cause

The otherwise normal This shape appears

histogram shows an when a small amount
of data from a different
“isolated island” either distribution has been
on the right or left side. accidentally included.
It will be necessary to
Isolated 　 examine the data
Island Shape history to find
anomalies in the
process, errors in
measurement, or the
inclusion of data from
another process.

The every other It will be necessary to

section (vertical bar) check if the width of
each section has been
shows the number of determined by
Gapped data smaller than the multiplying the unit
Teeth Shape one next to it, forming (scale) of
(or Teeth of a gapped-teeth or measurement with an
integer, or if the
Comb teeth-of-a-comb person who performed
Shape) shape. the measurement has
read the scale in a
certain deviant
manner.
 Scatter Diagram
A scatter diagram is used to regression line
“examine the relationship
between the two, paired,
interrelated data types, ”
such as “height and weight .
of a person.” . . . .
. . . . . .
A scatter diagram provides a . . . . . . .

Abrasion
means to find whether or not . .. . . .
these two data types are . . . . .
interrelated. It is also used . . . .
to determine how closely . . .
they are related to identify a
problem point that should be
controlled or improved. Number of Rotations
When is it used and what results will be obtained?

Used to a assess relationship between 2 data matters

Usage Results
Results
[Used
[Used during
during phases
phases to to monitor
monitor the
the situation,
situation, analyze
analyze Can
Canidentify
identifycause
causeand
and
causes and review effectiveness of an action.]
causes and review effectiveness of an action.] effect
effectrelation.
relation.
Used
Used to
to identify
identify aa relationship
relationship between
between twotwo matters.
matters.
(Can
(Canunderstand
understandthe
the
Used to identify a relationship between two matters and
Used to identify a relationship between two matters and relationship
establish countermeasures based on their cause and relationshipbetween
betweentwo
two
establish countermeasures based on their cause and results.)
effect
effect relation.
relation. results.)
Example
Example Usage
Usage
1.Relationship
1.Relationship between
between thermal
thermal treatment
treatment temperature
temperature
of a steel material and its tensile strengths.
of a steel material and its tensile strengths.
2.Relationship
2.Relationship between
between visit
visit made
made by by a
a salesman
salesman and
and
volume
volume ofof sales.
sales.
3.Relationship
3.Relationship between
between thethe number
number of of persons
persons visiting
visiting aa
department
department store
store and
and volume
volume of of sales
sales
 Various Forms of Scatter Diagram
The table below shows some examples of scatter diagram’s usage. If, for example,
there is a relationship where “an increase in the number of rotations (x) causes an
increase in abrasion (y),” there exists “positive correlation.” If, on the other hand, the
existence of a relationship where “an increase in the number of rotations (x) causes a
decline in abrasion (y)” indicates that there is “negative correlation.”

・ ・ ・ ・
・・ ・ ・・・
・ ・・・・・ ・・ ・ ・・
・・・ ・・ ・ ・ ・・・ ・・
・ ・・・・・ ・ ・・・・・
・・・・ ・ ・・・ ・・
・ ・・・ ・・ ・・・
・・・ ・ ・ ・
・ ・
Where there is a positive Where there is a negative
correlation correlation
・ ・ ・・
・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・・ ・・ ・
・ ・ ・ ・・ ・ ・ ・ ・・
・ ・・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・・ ・
・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・
・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・・ ・ ・
・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・・
・ ・ ・ ・・ ・
・ ・
Where there is no Where there is a non-
correlation linear correlation
Check Sheet
AA check
check sheet
sheet is is “a
“a sheet
sheet designed
designed in in
advance
advance to to allow
allow easy
easy collection
collection and
and
aggregation
aggregation of of data.”
data.” ByBy just
just entering
entering check
check
marks
marks onon aa check
check sheet,
sheet, data
data can
can be
be
collected
collected toto extract
extract necessary
necessary information,
information, oror
aa thorough
thorough inspection
inspection can can be
be performed
performed in in an
an
efficient
efficient manner,
manner, eliminating
eliminating aa possibility
possibility of
of
skipping
skipping any
any of of the
the required
required inspection
inspection items.
items.
AA check
check sheet
sheet isis also
also effective
effective in
in performing
performing
stratification
stratification (categorization).
(categorization).
Example Usage of Check Sheet

A check sheet used to identify defects

Date
Defect
6/10 6/11 6/12 6/13 6/14 Total

Vertical 34
Scratch

Scratch 11

Dent 37
When is it used and what results will be obtained?

Usage Results
Results
•• Used
Used toto collect
collect data.
data. ••Ensures
Ensures collection
collection ofof
•• Used
Used when
when performing
performing a a thorough
thorough required
required data.
data.
inspection
inspection •• Allows
Allows aa thorough
thorough
•• Used
Used toto identify
identify the
the actual
actual inspection
inspection
condition
condition ofof a
a situation.
situation. of
of all
all check
check items.
items.
(Used
(Used during
during phases
phases to to monitor
monitor the
the •• Can
Can understand
understand
situation,
situation, analyze
analyze causes,
causes, review
review tendencies
tendencies and and variations.
variations.
effectiveness
effectiveness of of an
an action,
action, perform
perform •• Can
standardization, Can record
record required
required data.
data.
standardization, and and implement
implement a a
selected
selected control
control measure.)
measure.)
Control Chart
AAcontrol
controlchart
chartisisused
usedto toexamine
examineaa
process
processto tosee
seeififititisisstable
stableor orto
to
maintain
maintainthe thestability
stabilityof ofaaprocess.
process.ThisThis
method
methodisisoften
oftenused
usedto toanalyze
analyzeaa
process.
process. To Tododoso,so,aachartchartisiscreated
created
from
fromdatadatacollected
collectedfor foraacertain
certainperiod
periodofof
time,
time,andanddots
dotsplotted
plottedon onthe
thechart
chartare are
examined
examinedto tosee
seehow howthey theyare
aredistributed
distributed
or
orififthey
theyare
arewithin
withinthe theestablished
established
Ｘ ● ● ●
● ●
●
●
control
controllimit.
limit. After
Aftersome someactions
actionsareare
●
●
● taken
takento tocontrol
controlandandstandardize
standardizevarious
various
factors,
factors,this
thismethod
methodisisalso alsoused
usedto to
Ｒ
●
●

●
●
● ●
●
●
● ●
examine
examineififaaprocess
processhas hasstabilized
stabilizedby by
these
theseactions,
actions,andandififso, so,totokeep
keepthe the
X - R Control Chart process
processstabilized.
stabilized.
When is it used and what results will be obtained?

Usage Results
Results
•[Used Used
Used to
•[Used during
collectphases
collect
during
to data.
phases
data. to
to monitor
monitor CanCan identify
identify aa change
change caused
caused
•by•byEnsures
Ensures
elapse collection
collection of
of
•the
•the
Usedsituation,
situation,
Used when analyze
analyzeaa causes,
when performing
performing causes,
thorough
thorough elapse of
required of time.
time.
data.
inspection required data.
review
review effectiveness
inspection effectiveness of of an
an CanCan judge
judge the
the process
process ifif itit is
is in
in
•action,
Used •its Allows
•itsAllows
normal a
a thorough
thorough
state or inspection
inspection
there are
Used to
•action, identify
identify the
toperform
perform actual
actual condition
condition of
Standardization
the
Standardization of normal state or there are
a situation. some anomalies by
anda situation.
and implement
implement a a selected
selected some
of
of all
all anomalies
check
check items.by examining
items. examining
(Used during phases to monitor the thethe dots plotted on the chart.
dots plotted on the chart.
control
(Used
control measure.]
during phases
measure.] to monitor the •• Can understand tendencies
situation, analyze causes,
situation, analyze causes, reviewreview
In Can
the understand
example tendencies
x(-)-R control
effectiveness
effectiveness of
of an
an action,
action, perform
perform andIn variations.
the example
and variations. x(-)-R control
Used
Used to
to observe
observe a
a change
change chart, x(-)”
x(-)” represents the
standardization,
standardization, and implement a
and implement a •chart,
• Can
Can record
record represents
required
required the
data.
data.
caused
selected by
causedcontrol
selected elapse
control of
measure.)
by elapse time.
of time.
measure.) central
central value,
value, whilewhile “R”
“R”
indicates
indicates the the range.
range.

Control Chart for Managerial Purposes: Extends the line indicating the control limit used for analytical
purposes to plot data obtained daily to keep a process in a good state.

* Control Chart for Analytical Purposes: Examines a process if it is in a controlled state by

collecting data for a certain period of time. If the process is not controlled, a survey is performed to identify
its cause and develop countermeasures.
Major Application
Out of specification:
It is necessary to investigate the cause

N=5 UCL=5.780
5.8 ●

●
● ● CL=5.400
X 5.4
● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
● ● ●
5.2 ●
LCL=5.020

1.0 ×
×
× × ×
×
R 0.5 ×
×
×
× ×
×
× ×

× × × × ×
× × ×
0
0 5 10 15 20
X-R Control Chart
Graph
AA graph
graph is is “a
“a graphical
graphical representation
representation of of data,
data, which
which
allows
allows aa person
person to to understand
understand the the meaning
meaning of of these
these
data
data at
at aa glance.”
glance.”
Unprocessed
Unprocessed data data simply
simply represent
represent aa list
list of
of
numbers,
numbers, and and finding
finding certain
certain tendencies
tendencies or or
magnitude
magnitude of of situation
situation from
from these
these numbers
numbers is is
difficult,
difficult, sometimes
sometimes resulting
resulting inin an
an interpretational
interpretational
error.
error.
AA graph
graph is is aa effective
effective means
means to to monitor
monitor or or judge
judge the
the
situation,
situation, allowing
allowing quick
quick and
and precise
precise understanding
understanding
of
of the
the current
current or or actual
actual situation.
situation.
AA graph
graph is is aa visual
visual and
and summarized
summarized representation
representation
of
of data
data thatthat need
need to to bebe quickly
quickly andand precisely
precisely
conveyed
conveyed to to others.
others.
When is it used and what results will be obtained?

A graph, although it is listed as one of the QC tools, is

commonly used in our daily life and is the most familiar means
of assessing a situation.

Usage Usage Results

Results
Used
Used toto observe
observe AA graphs
graphs is
is the
the most
most
changes
changes in in a
a time-
time- frequently
frequently used
used tool
tool
sequential
sequential order
order (line
(line among
among QC QC 77 tools.
tools.
graph)
graph) Can
Can recognize
recognize
Used
Used toto compare
compare size
size changes
changes inin aa time-
time-
(bar
(bar graph)
graph) sequential
sequential order,
order,
Used
Used toto observe
observe Ratios
Ratios ratios,
ratios, and
and size.
size.
(( pie
pie graph,
graph, column
column
graph)
graph)
 Example usage of Graph

Bar Graph of Sales Band Chart of Expenses

(Yen million)
Survey Period:2000.12
Presented by:M/K
500
(Yen million)
　0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
400

S
Before Chemicals Oils Electricity
a
300 Taking (170)
l (430) (200)
Actions
e
s (Total:Yen 8 million)
200

After Chemicals Oils

100 Taking
(240) (150)
Actions
0 (Total:Yen 4.95 million)
Electricity
Iwate Tokyo Osaka Shizuoka
(105)
Control Charts
The History of Control Charts

 Developed in the 1920’s

 Dr. Walter Shewhart, then an employee of
Bell Laboratories developed the control chart
to separate the special causes of variation
from the common causes of variation.
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
A methodology for monitoring a process to
identify special causes of variation and
signal the need to take corrective action
when appropriate
 SPC relies on control charts
Common
Causes

Special
Causes
COMMON CAUSE

 RANDOM VARIATION
 SUM OF MANY SMALL VARIANCES

 SYSTEM-RELATED

 80% OF PROCESS VARIATION

 RESPONSIBILITY OF MANAGEMENT

 WRONGLY ATTRIBUTED TO LINE

EMPLOYEES
SPECIAL CAUSES

 ASSIGNABLE

 20% OF PROCESS VARIATION

 IDENTIFIABLE TO SPECIFIC
CONDITIONS
 OVERCOME BY REMOVAL, TRAINING,
EXPERIENCE and/or COACHING
(2) Assignable causes variation:

425 425 425

(a) Location (b) Spread (c) Shape

Out of control In control

(assignable causes present) (no assignable causes)
Histograms do not
take into account
changes over time.

Control charts
can tell us when a
process changes
Control Chart Applications
Establish state of statistical control
Monitor a process and signal when
it goes out of control
Determine process capability
Capability Versus Control

Control
Capability In Control Out of Control

Capable IDEAL

Not Capable
Commonly Used Control Charts
 Variables data
 x-bar and R-charts
 x-bar and s-charts

 Charts for individuals (x-charts)

 Attribute data
 For “defectives” (p-chart, np-chart)
 For “defects” (c-chart, u-chart)
Developing Control Charts
1. Prepare
 Choose measurement
 Determine how to collect data, sample size,
and frequency of sampling
 Set up an initial control chart
1. Collect Data
 Record data
 Calculate appropriate statistics
 Plot statistics on chart
Next Steps
3. Determine trial control limits
 Center line (process average)
 Compute UCL, LCL
3. Analyze and interpret results
 Determine if in control
 Eliminate out-of-control points
 Recompute control limits as necessary
Typical Out-of-Control Patterns
 Point outside control limits
 Sudden shift in process average

 Cycles

 Trends

 Hugging the center line

 Hugging the control limits

 Instability
Shift in Process Average
Identifying Potential Shifts
Cycles
Trend
Final Steps

5. Use as a problem-solving tool

 Continue to collect and plot data
 Take corrective action when
necessary
5. Compute process capability
Process Capability Calculations
Special Variables Control Charts
x-barand s charts
x-chart for individuals
Charts for Attributes
 Fraction nonconforming (p-chart)
 Fixed sample size
 Variable sample size

 np-chart for number nonconforming

 Charts for defects

 c-chart
 u-chart
Control Chart Selection
Quality Characteristic
variable attribute
defective defect
no
n>1? x and MR
yes constant
yes constant
p or sampling
sample
np unit?
n>=10 or no size?
x and R
computer? yes no
no
yes
p-chart with c u
x and s variable sample
size
Types of Shewhart Control Charts
Control Charts for Variables Data
X and R charts: for sample averages and ranges.
X and s charts: for sample means and standard deviations.
Md and R charts: for sample medians and ranges.
X charts: for individual measures; uses moving ranges.

Control Charts for Attributes Data

p charts: proportion of units nonconforming.
np charts: number of units nonconforming.
c charts: number of nonconformities.
u charts: number of nonconformities per unit.

5-
The Central Limit Theorem

Suppose a population has a mean (µ )

and a standard deviation (σ )

The Central Limit Theorem states

The distribution of sample means ( X )

will be approximately normal.
Its mean X = µ ,
and its standard deviation σ X = σ / n

5-
 Central Limit Theorem Illustrated
99.7% of all
sample means

Sample
(Basis for specification limits) means
Population,
Individual
items

µ -3σ x µ µ +3σx

5-
Control Charts

 Logic Behind Control Charts

 Consider measurement of variables data
 We know that a sample average typically varies from the
population average.
 The problem is to determine if any variation from a
specified population average is
 Is simply random variation
 Or is because the population average is not as specified
 We therefore establish limits on how different we’ll allow
the sample average (or whatever other summary measure)
to be before we conclude the specification is not being met.
 Control Limits Set via Sampling Theory
Control Charts

 The Good News:

 We don’t need to go back to the statistics books
and tables
 Simple-to-use tables and formulae have been
developed for creating control charts
 Formulae and tables for variables data
 Formulae only for attributes data
Process Control Chart Factors
Control Limit UCL Factor LCL Factor Factor for
Factor for for Ranges for Ranges Estimating
Sample (Range (Range
(Subgroup) Averages Sigma
Size (Mean Charts) Charts) Charts) ( = R/d2)
(n) (A2) (D4) (D3) (d2)

2 1.880 3.267 0 1.128

3 1.023 2.575 0 1.693
4 0.729 2.282 0 2.059
5 0.577 2.115 0 2.326
6 0.483 2.004 0 2.534
7 0.419 1.924 0.076 2.704
8 0.373 1.864 0.136 2.847
9 0.337 1.816 0.184 2.970
10 0.308 1.777 0.223 3.078

5-
Control Charts
 Process Overview
 First, develop sampling plan:
 Number of observations per sample
 Frequency of sampling
 Stage 1 sampling:
 Conduct initial periodic sampling
 Determine control limits
 Perform calculations
 Decide whether in control or not
 Stage 2 sampling (only if Stage 1 is successful):
 Continue operating with periodic sampling
 Perform calculations
 Decide whether in control (each sample)
 SPC: Control Limits

µ +3σx UCL

µ -3σx LCL
 SPC: Control Limits
In control Out of control
Process Process center
is stable has shifted

UCL •
µ +3σx •
•
• •
µ
• •
• • •
•
µ -3σx LCL
 X and R Charts
Sample Number
1 2 3 4 25

Values
4 7 6 7
Select 25 small samples
(in this case, n=4) 6 3 9 6
Find X and R of each 5 8 8 6
sample.
5 6 9 5
The X chart is used to Sum 20 24 32 24 28 Total
control the process mean.
X 5 6 8 6 7 150
The R chart is used to R
control process variation. 2 5 3 2 3 75
 X and R Charts
Sample Number
n A2 D4 D3 d2 1 2 3 4 25
4 7 6 7

Values
2 1.880 3.267 0 1.128 6 3 9 6
3 1.023 2.575 0 1.693 5 8 8 6
4 0.729 2.282 0 2.059 5 6 9 5
Sum 20 24 32 24 28 Total
X 5 6 8 6 7 150
R 2 5 3 2 3 75
 X and R Charts
Sample Number
n A2 D4 D3 d2 1 2 3 4 25
4 7 6 7

Values
2 1.880 3.267 0 1.128 6 3 9 6
3 1.023 2.575 0 1.693 5 8 8 6
4 0.729 2.282 0 2.059 5 6 9 5
Sum 20 24 32 24 28 Total
X 5 6 8 6 7 150
X = 150 / 25 = 6 R 2 5 3 2 3 75
–
–
R = 75 / 25 = 3
–
A2R = 0.729(3) = 2.2
–
UCLX = X– + A2R
– – = 6 + 2.2 = 8.2
LCLX = X
– - A2R
– – = 6 - 2.2 = 3.8
UCLR = D4R
– = 2.282(3) = 6.8
– = 0(3) = 0
LCLR = D3R
 X and R Charts
Sample Number
n A2 D4 D3 d2 1 2 3 4 25
4 7 6 7

Values
2 1.880 3.267 0 1.128 6 3 9 6
3 1.023 2.575 0 1.693 5 8 8 6
4 0.729 2.282 0 2.059 5 6 9 5
Sum 20 24 32 24 28 Total
X = 150 / 25 = 6 X 5 6 8 6 7 150
–
– = 75 / 25 = 3 R 2 5 3 2 3 75
R
– R = 0.729(3) = 2.2
A UCL X– = 8.2
2 –
–
Mean
UCL – = X + A R = 6 + 2.2 = 8.2 X = 6.0
X 2
–
– – LCL X– = 3.8
LCLX = X - A2R = 6 - 2.2 = 3.8
–
– – UCL R = 6.8
UCLR = D4R = 2.282(3) = 6.8
Range

– –
LCLR = D3R R = 3.0
– = 0(3) = 0
LCL R = 0
p Chart
Sample number
1 2 3 4 25 Total
n 50 50 50 50 50 1250
#def 2 4 0 3 2 50
p .04 .08 0 .06 .04 1.00
 p Chart
– Σ #def
p= = 50/1250 = .04
Σ n Sample number

3σ P = 3 p(1-p) 1 2 3 4 25 Total
n n 50 50 50 50 50 1250
=3 .04(.96) #def 2 4 0 3 2 50
50
p .04 .08 0 .06 .04 1.00
= 0.083

UCL P = p + 3σ P
–

= .04 + .083 = .123

–
UCL P = p - 3σ P

= .04 - .083 = 0
can't be negative
 p Chart
– Σ #def
p= = 50/1250 = .04
Σ n Sample number

3σ P = 3 p(1-p) 1 2 3 4 25 Total
n n 50 50 50 50 50 1250
=3 .04(.96) #def 2 4 0 3 2 50
50
p .04 .08 0 .06 .04 1.00
= 0.083

UCL P = p + 3σ P
–
UCL P = 0.123
= .04 + .083 = .123 •
•
–
UCL P = p - 3σ P –
• p = 0.04
= .04 - .083 = 0 LCL P = 0
can't be negative
•
Hotel Suite Inspection -
Defects Discovered
Day Defects Day Defects Day Defects

1 2 10 4 19 1
2 0 11 2 20 1
3 3 12 1 21 2
4 1 13 2 22 1
5 2 14 3 23 0
6 3 15 1 24 3
7 1 16 3 25 0
8 0 17 2 26 1
9 0 18 0
Total 39
c Chart for Hotel Suite
Inspection
Number of defects
5 UCL = 5.16

4
3
2
c = 1.50
1
0 LCL = 0
5 10 15 20 25 Day
CONTROL CHARTS
WHY INSPECTION DOESN’T WORK

 IN ORDER TO CONSISTENTLY SHIP QUALITY

PRODUCT TO THE CUSTOMER YOU HAVE TO
MONITOR THE PROCESS NOT THE PRODUCT
 INSPECTION (if you’re lucky) FINDS DEFECTS
AFTER THE FACT
 THIS RESULTS IN C.O.P.Q. COSTS THAT COULD
HAVE BEEN DETECTED OR AVOIDED MUCH
EARLIER IN THE PROCESS
CONTROL CHARTS
THE BASICS

CONTROL CHART

Upper Control
Limit
Y (results)

X (Grand Average or
(Expected Result)

Lower Control
Limit

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
VARIATION
 CONTROLCHARTS DISTINGUISHES
BETWEEN:
 NATURAL VARIATION (COMMON CAUSE)
 UNNATURAL VARIATION (SPECIAL CAUSE)

UNNATURAL VARIATION
UCL

Average NATURAL VARIATION

LCL
UNNATURAL VARIATION
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR - R CHART STEPS (1)
 DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE (n=2-6)
 DETERMINE FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING
 COLLECT 20-25 DATA SETS
 AVERAGE EACH SAMPLE (X-bar)
 RANGE FOR EACH SAMPLE (R)
 AVERAGE OF SAMPLE AVERAGES =
 X-double bar
 AVERAGE SAMPLE RANGES =
 R-bar
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR - R CHART STEPS (2)

X CONTROL LIMITS: -
BAR

UCL = XDBAR + (A2)(RBAR) - LCL =

XDBAR - (A2)(RBAR)
R CONTROL LIMITS:
- UCL = (D4)(RBAR) -
LCL = (D3)(RBAR)
Determining if your control Chart is “Out of
Control”
 Control Chart

Upper Control
Limit
Zone “A”
2 sigma limit
Zone “B”
Y (results)

1 sigma limit
Zone “C”
Average
Zone “C”
1 sigma limit
Zone “B”
2 sigma limit
Zone “A” Lower Control
Limit

X (observations)
 Control Charts
 Tests for Assignable (special) causes
Test 1 One point beyond 3 sigma
Test 2 Nine points in a row on one side of the centerline
Test 3 Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing
Test 4 Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down
Test 5 Two out of three points in a row beyond 2 sigma
Test 6 Four out of five points in a row beyond 1 sigma
Test 7 Fifteen points in a row within I sigma of the
centerline
Test 8 Eight points in a row on both sides of the centerline,
all beyond 1 sigma
CONTROL CHARTS
INTERPRETATION
 SPECIAL: ANY POINT ABOVE UCL OR
BELOW LCL
 RUN: > 7 CONSECUTIVE PTS ABOVE OR
BELOW CENTERLINE
 1-IN-20: MORE THAN 1 POINT IN 20
CONSECUTIVE POINTS CLOSE TO
UCL OR LCL
 TREND: 5-7 CONSECUTIVE POINTS IN
ONE DIRECTION (UP OR DOWN)
CONTROL CHARTS
IN CONTROL w/ CHANCE VARIATION
Control Chart - Chance Variation

UCL
Y (results)

Ave.

LCL

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
LACK OF VARIABILITY
Control Chart - Lack of Variability

UCL
Y (results)

Ave.

LCL

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
TRENDS
Control Chart - Trend

UCL
Y (results)

Ave.

LCL

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
SHIFTS IN PROCESS LEVELS
Control Chart - Shifts in Process Level

UCL
Y (results)

Ave.

LCL

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
RECURRING CYCLES
Control Chart - Recurring Cycles

UCL
Y (results)

Ave.

LCL

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
POINTS NEAR OR OUTSIDE LIMITS

Control Chart - Points Near or Outside

Control Limits

UCL
Y (results)

Ave.

LCL

X (observations)
CONTROL CHARTS
ATTRIBUTE CHARTS
 TRACKS CHARACTERISTICS
- SHORT OR TALL; PASS OR FAIL
 ONE CHART PER PROCESS
 FOLLOW TRENDS AND CYCLES

 EVALUATE ANY PROCESS CHANGE

 CONSISTS OF SEVERAL SUBGROUPS

(a.k.a. - LOTS)
- SUBGROUP SIZE > 50
CONTROL CHARTS
ATTRIBUTE CHART TYPES

p chart = Proportion Defective

 np chart = Number Defective

 c chart = Number of nonconformities within a

constant sample size
 u chart = Number of nonconformities within a
varying sample size
CONTROL CHARTS
np CHART EXAMPLE

np Chart

25
20
# of Defects

UCL
15
10 c

5
0
11

13

15

17

19

21
1

Serial Number
CONTROL CHARTS
RISKS
 RISK 1: FALSE ALARM -
REJECT GOOD LOT - CALL
PROCESS OUT OF CONTROL WHEN IN
CONTROL
 RISK 2: NO DETECTION OF PROBLEM
- SHIP BAD LOT -
CALL PROCESS IN CONTROL WHEN
OUT OF CONTROL
Process Capability
Analysis
Process Capability Analysis

 Differs Fundamentally from Control Charting

 Focuses on improvement, not control
 Variables, not attributes, data involved
 Capability studies address range of individual outputs
 Control charting addresses range of sample measures
 Assumes Normal Distribution
 Remember the Empirical Rule?
 Inherent capability (6σ x ) is compared to
specifications
 Requires Process First to be In Control
Process Capability:
Normal Curve

2σ
(68%)

µ
4σ (95.5%)
6σ (99.7%)

5-
 Process Capability
Process Capability (PC) is the range in which "all" output
can be produced.

Definition:
PC = 6σ

µ
6σ (99.7%)
5-
Process Capability Chart
Process output
distribution

Output Output
out of spec out of spec

5.010

4.90 4.95 5.00 5.05 5.10 5.15

cm
X
Tolerance band
LSL USL
Inherent capability (6σ )

5-
 Process Capability
This process is
CAPABLE of
producing all good
output.

➤ Control the process.

Lower Upper
Spec Spec
Limit Limit
This process is
× NOT CAPABLE.
CAPABLE

➤ INSPECT - Sort out

the defectives

5-
 Process Capability

Process Capability:
Cp = Design Spec Width / Process Width
Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6σ
Cp should be a large as possible

Process Capability Ratio:

Cr = 1/Cp * 100
Indicates percent of design spec. used by process
variability
Cr should be as small as possible
 Process Capability

Process Capability Index (account for Mean Shifts):

Cpk = Cp * (1-k)
where k = Process Shift / (Design Spec Width/2)

Or

Cpk = Min (Cpl, Cpu)

Cpl = (X - LSL)/3σ
Cpu = (USL - X)/3σ
 Process Capability

Cpk Meaning
Negative. Process Mean outside Spec Limits
0 - 1.0 Portion of process spread falls Outside Specs
> 1.0 Process spread falls within Spec Limits

Six Sigma Cpk = 1.5

 Process Capability

Process Capability Ratio: Cp = Design Spec

Width/Process Width
Cp = (USL-LSL)/6σ
Process Capability Index (account for Mean Shifts):
Cpk = Cp (1-k)
where k = Process Shift/(Design Spec Width/2 )
Or, Minimum of
• (X - LSL)/3σ
• (USL - X)/3σ
 Process Capability Ratios
(Desired Performance) / (Actual Performance)
Note that average
performance is not
centered between the The shaded areas
This curve is the spec limits represent the
distribution of data percentage of off-
from the process spec
production

Voice of Customer

Voice of Process
Target rule:
Cp - Cpk ≤ 0.33

Variation rule:
Cp ≥ 1.33
Process Capability Index
Index Cpk compares the spread and location
of the process, relative to the
specifications.
–

{
Upper Spec Limit - X
Cpk = the smaller of: OR – 3σ
X - Lower Spec Limit
3σ
Alternate Form

Zmin –

{
Upper Spec Limit - X
Cpk =
3 OR
σ
Where Zmin is the smaller of: –
X - Lower Spec Limit
σ
5-
Process Capability: C pk Variations
(a) (b) (c)

Cpk = 1.0 Cpk = 1.33 Cpk = 3.0

LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL

(d) (e) (f)

Cpk = 1.0 Cpk = 0.60 Cpk = 0.80

LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL

5-
PROCESS CAPABILITY
PROCESS CAPABILITY MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT

Process Capability is computed as :

6 σ = 6 S = 6 R / d
Process Capability Index Cp = U – L / 6 σ
Cpk = U – X/3σ
If : Cp > 1.6 Process is Excellent
Cp > 1.3 Process is Good
Cp > 1.0 Process is Satisfactory
Cp < 1.0 Process is Poor
Sources of Variation in
Production Processes
CONTROL LOOP

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

MEASUREMENT
ADJUST

DECIDE ON
FIX? STATISTICS

ID GAPS

EXAMINE
 Control

Capability In Control Out of Control

Capable Ideal

Not Capable
Contents

 Quality & TQM

 Basic Statistics

 Seven QC Tools

 Control Charts

 Process Capability Analysis

Thank You.