GROUND SHAKING

direct shaking effects are not the only hazard associated with earthquakes, other effects such
as landslides, liquefaction, and tsunamis have also played important part in destruction
produced by earthquakes.
GROUND RUPTURE
ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less
severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures.

The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the
distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or
reduce wave propagation.The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.
LIQUEFACTION
Damage from liquefaction. Liquefaction only happens when underlying waterlogged silts are
present and when shaking is severe. When the ground becomes liquid, it can no longer support the
weight of buildings, so these tend to sink. ... This reduces the risk of liquefaction in an
earthquake.
EARTHQUAKE INDUCED GROUND
SUBSIDENCE
Land subsidence was one of the majoreffects of these earthquakes. ... Land
subsidence can also be caused during liquefaction. Liquefaction can result in the settling and
compacting of unconsolidated sediment in an event of a major earthquake. This can result in
the lowering of the land surface.
TSUNAMI
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large
volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62
miles), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-
800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an
earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can
also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the
earthquake that generated them.Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter
scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive
tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.
EARTHQUAKE INDUCED LANDSLIDES
Earthquake-Induced Landslides.Earthquake shaking can cause
landsliding on many scales, as some of these examples show.
Anearthquake can cause a slope to become unstable by the inertial loading
it imposes or by causing a loss of strength in the slope materials.