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7 Diffraction
•allows RF signals to propagate to obstructed (shadowed) regions
- over the horizon (around curved surface of earth)
- behind obstructions
•received field strength rapidly decreases as receiver moves into
obstructed region
•diffraction field often has sufficient strength to produce useful signal
Segments
3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
1
Huygen’s Principal
•all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for
producing 2nd ry wavelets
•2nd ry wavelets combine to produce new wavefront in the direction
of propagation
•diffraction arises from propagation of 2nd ry wavefront into
shadowed area
•field strength of diffracted wave in shadow region = electric field
components of all 2nd ry wavelets in the space around the obstacle
= d – (d1+d2)
d = d1+ d2, where
,di = h 2 + d i2
h d
= h + d + h + d – (d1+d2)
2
1
2 2 2
2
TX RX
d1 d2
ht hobs hr
2π∆ 2π h 2 d1 + d 2 π 2 2( d1 + d 2 ) 3.55
= =
= h
λ λ 2 d1d 2 2 λd1d 2
h h’
TX
d1
d2 RX
ht hobs
hr
180-
TX
hobs -hr
ht-hr
RX
d1 d2
when tan x x = +
h
tan = tan(x)
d1
x = 0.4 rad tan(x) =
h 0.423
tan = (0.4 rad ≈ 23o )
d2
h h d1 + d 2
+ = h
d1 d 2 d1d 2 x
5
Eqn 3.55 for is often normalized using the dimensionless Fresnel-
Kirchoff diffraction parameter, v
2( d1 + d 2 ) 2d1d 2
v= h = α (3.56)
λd1d 2 λ ( d1 + d 2 )
π v2 (3.57)
= 2
from equations 3.54-3.57 , the phase difference, between LOS
& diffracted path is function of
•obstruction’s height & position
•transmitters & receivers height & position
simplify geometry by reducing all heights to minimum height
6
(1) Fresnel Zones
•used to describe diffraction loss as a function of path
difference,
around an obstruction
•represents successive regions between transmitter and receiver
•nth region = region where path length of secondary waves is
n /2
greater than total LOS path length
•regions form a series of ellipsoids with foci at Tx & Rx
d
λ/2 + d
λ+d
at 1 GHz λ = 0.3m 1.5λ + d
7
Construct circles on the axis of Tx-Rx such that = n /2, for given integer
n
•radii of circles depends on location of normal plane between Tx and
Rx
R
•given n, the set of points where = n /2 defines a family of
nλ h 2 d1 + d 2
ellipsoids
= = d ,d >> r
•assuming2 1 2 2 d1d 2n
T
( n − 1) λ ≤Δ≤
nλ
2 2
9
For 1st Fresnel Zone, at a distance d1 from Tx & d2 from Rx
•diffracted wave will have a path length of d
d
Tx d1 d2 Rx
destructive interference
• = /2
•d = /2 + d1+d2
10
Fresnel Zones
•slice the ellipsoids with a transparent plane between transmitter
&
receiver – obtain series of concentric circles
•circles represent loci of 2nd ry waveletsthat propagate to receiver
such that total path length increases by /2 for each successive
circle
•effectively produces alternatively constructive & destructive
interference to received signal Q R
h
d
O
2
T d
1
•If an obstruction were present, it could block some of the Fresnel
zones
11
Assuming, d1 & d2 >> rn radius of nth Fresnel Zone can be given
in terms of n, d1,d2,
nλd1d 2
rn = (3.58)
d1 + d 2
Excess Total Path Length, for each ray passing through nth circle
n =n/2 Rx
1 /2
2
3 3/2 Tx
12
(2) Diffraction Loss caused by blockage of 2nd ry (diffracted) waves
partial energy from 2nd ry waves is diffracted around an obstacle
• obstruction blocks energy from some of the Fresnel
zones
• only portion of transmitted energy reaches receiver
received energy = vector sum of contributions from all unobstructed
Fresnel zones
•depends on geometry of obstruction
•Fresnel Zones indicate phase of secondary (diffracted) E-
field
Obstacles may block transmission paths – causing diffraction loss
•construct family of ellipsoidsbetween TX & RX to represent
Fresnel zones
•join all points for which excess path delay is multiple of /2
•compare geometry of obstacle with Fresnel zones to determine
diffraction loss (or gain)
13
Diffraction Losses
Place ideal, perfectly straight screen between Tx and Rx
(i) if top of screen is well below LOS path screen will have little effect
- the Electric field at Rx = ELOS (free space value)
(ii) as screen height increases E will vary up & down as screen blocks more
Fresnel zones below LOS path
amplitude of oscillation increases until just in line with Tx and Rx
field strength = ½ of unobstructed field strength
Rx
Tx
14
Fresnel zones: ellipsoids with foci at transmit & receive antenna
•if obstruction does not block the volume contained within 1st
Fresnel
zone then diffraction loss is minimal
•rule of thumb for LOS uwave:
if 55% of 1st Fresnel zone is clear further Fresnel zone clearing
does not significantly alter diffraction loss
d1 d2
TX RX
h = 0 and v =0
TX RX
d1 h d2
16
3.7.2 Knife Edge Diffraction Model
Diffraction Losses
•estimating attenuation caused by diffraction over obstacles is
essential for predicting field strength in a given service area
•generally not possible to estimate losses precisely
•theoretical approximations typically corrected with empirical
measurements
17
Knife-edge Model - simplest model that provides insight into order of
magnitude for diffraction loss
•useful for shadowing caused by 1 object treat object as a knife
edge
•diffraction losses estimated using classical Fresnel solution for field
behind a knife edge
Consider receiver at R located in shadowed region (diffraction zone)
•E- field strength at R = vector sum of all fields due to 2nd ry Huygen’s
sources in the plane above the knife edge
19
Gd(dB) = Diffraction Gain due to knife edge presence relative to E0
Graphical Evaluation
5
0
-5
-10
Gd(dB)
-15
-20
-25
-30
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 v
20
Table for Gd(dB)
Gd(dB) v
0 -1
20 log(0.5-0.62v) [-1,0]
20 log(0.5 e- 0.95 v) [0,1]
20 log(0.4-(0.1184-(0.38-0.1v)2)1/2 ) [1, 2.4]
20 log(0.225/v) > 2.4
21
e.g. Let: = 0.333 (fc = 900MHz), d1 = 1km, d2= 1km, h = 25m
Compute Diffraction Loss at h = 25m
1. Fresnel Diffraction Parameter
2(d1 + d 2 ) 2( 2000)
v= h = 25 = 2.74
λd1d 2 6
0.333(10 )
2. diffraction loss
•from graph is Gd(dB) -22dB
•from table Gd(dB) 20 log (0.225/2.74) = - 21.7dB
(2) wave theory solution for field behind 2 knife edges in series
25
3.8 Scattering
26
Reflective Surfaces
•flat surfaces has dimensions >>
•rough surface often induces specular reflections
•surface roughness often tested using Rayleigh fading
criterion
- define critical height for surface protuberances hc for given
incident angle i
λ
hc = (3.62)
8 sin θi
27
h = standard deviation of surface height about mean surface height
28
For h > hc reflected E-fields can be solved for rough surfaces using
modified reflection coefficient
rough = s (3.65)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
angle of incidence
30
Reflection Coefficient of Rough Surfaces
(2) || polarization (horizontal antenna polarization)
| |
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
angle of incidence
31
3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model (RCS)
•if a large distant objects causes scattering & its location is known
accurately predict scattered signal strengths
32
Urban Mobile Radio
Bistatic Radar Equation used to find received power from
scattering in far field region
•describes propagation of wave traveling in free space that
impinges on distant scattering object
•wave is reradiated in direction of receiver by:
33
RCS can be approximated by surface area of scattering object (m2)
measured in dB relative to 1m2 reference
•may be applied to far-field of both transmitter and receiver
•useful in predicting received power which scatters off large
objects (buildings)
•units = dB m2
•[Sei91] for medium and large buildings, 5-10km
34