Magic # in Death

• 3 – 6 hrs: Start: Cellular/Molecular Death; Rigor Mortis;

Livor Mortis
• 6 – 8 hrs: After death, blood is still in fluid portion in blood
vessel
• 12 hrs: Completion/full dev’t of Livor Mortis & Rigor Mortis
• Duration of Rigor Mortis: Dependent on country
– Temperate Country: 48 – 72 hrs (2 to 3 days)
– Tropical Country: summer – 18 – 36 hrs; cold – 24 – 48 hrs
• General Observation of Duration of Rigor Mortis: 48 – 60
hrs; the hotter the place, the quicker rigor mortis will
dissipate.
 Magic # in Death
• Algor mortis – one of the earliest/prominent
signs of death
• Pallor Mortis – 15 – 20 minutes
• Presence of Maggots (offspring of flies) – 24
hrs after death
 Value to Investigation
• Rigor Mortis: time of death
• Livor Mortis: time and place of death
 Hair
• Cuticle: outside covering of hair; overlapping scales
• Cortex: intermediate layer; race determinant –
pigment granules
• Medulla: central canal; distinguishes human
(fragmented, intermittent, absent) vs animal
(continuous)
• Shaft: where CUTICLE, CORTEX, MEDULLA are found
• Bulb/root/follicle: must be present for hair to yield
DNA information
 Elements of Photography
• Light
• Camera: photograms & heliograph
(1st photograph) – taken without
camera
• Sensitized materials: film and paper
• Chemical processes
 Question
• In the beginning light..... Which of the
following is an component of photography?
a. Light
b. Darkness
c. Light and darkness
d. None of the above
• How many parts are there in a camera
including its accessories? a. 7, b. 4, c. 5, d. 3
 Camera Obscura: DARK ROOM
• When light from the outside gets inside a room
or a cave through the crevices, light is projected
on walls, ceiling or floor. What is the image of
light in camera obscura? INVERTED IMAGE
• USES:
– View an eclipse
– Art
– Entertainment
– Photography
 BALLISTICS
• Ballistics: motion of projectiles: Ballista:
catapult;Ballein/Ballo: to throw
• Study of firearms: forensic (court) ballistics
• Branches:
– Interior: bullet is not yet out of gun
– Exterior: muzzle point up to target
– Terminal: effect of bullet on target
– Forensic ballistics: examination of firearms
• Forensus: marketplace, forum, debate, court
 FP Patterns
• Arch: (5%) – Plain Arch (A = index fingers in blocking out, a
= fingers other than index fingers in blocking out) & Tented
Arch (T, t)
• Loops: (65%) – Radial (flow of ridges: towards thumb);
radius bone (bigger bone) of forearm connected to thumb
& Ulnar (flow of ridges: towards little finger); ulna bone
(smaller bone) of forearm connected to little finger
• Whorls: (30%) – a. Plain whorl, b. Central pocket loop
whorl, c. Double loop whorl, d. Accidental = What pattern
that is not included in the combinations for pattern to be
called as accidental? PLAIN ARCH
 SYMBOL
• Plain arch: (A, a)
• Tented arch: (T, t)
• Ulnar loop: slant in the direction where loop
flows in BLOCKING OUT
• Radial loop: (R, r)
• Whorls: General Classif: all whorls are W.
Extension classification: Plain Whorl (W); Central
Pocket Loop (C); Double Loop (D); Accidental (X)
 How Many Patterns of FP
• Henry-FBI System: 8
• Galton, Vucetich & Purkinje = 9
 1st FP Identification
• Chinese
• Hua Chi
• In European concept, the first to suggest the use
of fp in identification: HENRY FAULDS
• Father of FP: Sir Edward Richard Henry
• Father of Dactyloscopy: Johannes Evangelist
Purkinje
• Grandfather of Dactyloscopy: Marcello Malpighi
 Rifle Bullets
• Ball bullets: for personnel only
• Tracer bullets: BARIUM NITRATES – catches fire
when projected in the air
• Armor-piercing bullet: TUNGSTEN CHROME STEEL
• Incendiary bullets: ignite upon impact; useful in
firing at gasoline depot
• Explosive/fragmentary bullets: high powered
military mortars
 Ridge Counting: Rule
• Core & delta not counted
• Imaginary line drawn from core & delta
• Dot/fragment: counted if it is thick & heavy as
other ridges
• Incipient ridge: immature, rudimentary &
nascent ridge (not fully developed).
– On inked impression, it will register very faintly.
– Not counted
 Ridge Counting: Rule
• Bifurcation: forking of one ridge into two or
more branches
– Imaginary line happens below forking: 1
– Imaginary line happens on two forks: 2
– Imaginary line happens exactly at point of forking:
2
 Disqualified Subjects
• Pregnant women
• Menstruation
• Aches of body: ex. Toothaches
• Physical abnormalities: heart problem & lung
problem
• Mental abnormalities: ex. Insane persons
RATIONALE: These conditions will naturally interfere
with the tracing; these conditions distract the
subjects’ concentration
 Admissibility of Photograph
• Should not be inflammatory.
• Should be accurate representation.
• Should not be against public policy and
decency.
 Best Document in Rape
• Medical findings (report)
 Focal Length of Lens
• Focal length: distance from optical center of lens
to film plane or sensor
• Normal/Standard Lens: equal to the diagonal of
the film frame (negative material); equal to
human eye (50 mm)
• Wide-angle lens: less than the diagonal of its
negative material; shorter focal length (35 mm)
• Telephoto lens: greater than the diagonal of its
negative material; longer focal length (70 mm)
 Uses of Lenses
• Crime Scene Photography:
– General Photographs (Over-all Photographs):
concentration – best feature of crime scene by WIDE-
ANGLE LENS (35 mm)
– Medium-Range Photographs (Evidence-Establishing
Photographs): concentration – landmark of evidence
(where the evidence is located) by NORMAL LENS (50
mm)
– Close-up Photographs: concentration – best feature of
physical evidence by MACROPHOTOGRAPHY (telephoto
in the macro range focusing) by 70 mm.
 Uses of Lenses
• Telephoto: Surveillance photography (STAKE
OUT SURVEILLANCE)
• Zoom Lens: lens with variable focal length:
normal, wide-angle & telephoto in one lens
barrel
• NOTE: Macrophotography: it is with use of
TRIPOD (to avoid blurry image of evidence)
Pathological Classification of Death
• Death by SYNCOPE – heart
• Death by COMA – brain
• Death by ASPHYXIA – lungs; loss of oxygen;
caused by VIOLENCE. The result of violent
death
STRANGULATION: target part of body is NECK
manual strangulation or throttling
 Technical Classification
• Main Classification – MA
– Artillery: more than 1 inch in diameter projectile
– Small arms: less than 1 inch in diameter projectile
• General Classification: GSR
– Smoothbore
– Rifled bore
• R.A. 10591: Definition of Small Arms – not
capable of automatic firing: (1) pistol – self-
loading, semi-automatic; (2) revolver; (3) shotgun
 Proper Terminology
• Fingerprinting: process of taking fingerprints
• Dactyloscopy: specialization
• Forensic ballistics: specialization
 Magic # in Photography
• Development: 5 minutes
• Stop-bath: 30 seconds
• Fixation: 5 minutes
 Plain Whorl
• Simplest and most common form of whorl
• If a pattern can’t be classified as central pocket
loop, double loop and accidental yet passed
the requirements of a whorl, then it shall be
classified as a plain whorl.
 Negative Material
• More light: opaque or black
shade
• Less light: white
 Illusion
• False interpretation of a stimulus
– Sight: VISUAL
– Touch/feeling: TACTILE
– Taste: GUSTATORY
– Hearing: AUDITORY
– Smelling: OLFACTORY
– Size is greatly reduced: Lilliputian
 Wavelength of Light
• Expressed in symbol LAMBDA
• Units: nanometers/millimicrons/Angstrom
• 1 wavelength = distance from crest to crest or
from trough to trough
• Essential Rays of Modern Photography: XUVI
– X-RAY: 1 to 30 nm
– ULTRAVIOLET: 30 – 400 nm
– VISIBLE: 400 – 700 nm
– INFRARED: 700 + nm
 INFRARED
• Discovered by Frederick William Herschel
– Thermal property
– Refractive property
– Reflective property
– Absorbent property
• Infrared film: longest range of sensitivity
• Connection with certain terminologies: (1)
luminescence; (2) obliteration; (3)
obscurring/obscurred
 Types of Sunlight
• Bright: SHADOW – deep and uniform
• Hazy: SHADOW – transparent
• Dull: SHADOW – none
 Usual Phraseology in Polygraph
• Formulation of Questions: Rules
– “QUESTIONS MUST NOT BE IN THE FORM OF
ACCUSATION.”
 CLASSIFICATION
• Correct order of classification line: KEY, MAJOR,
PRIMARY, SECONDARY, SUBSECONDARY, FINAL
• Key: Ridge Count of 1st Loop; Pattern: Loop;
Fingers: All except Little Fingers; Result:
Numerical
• Major Classification: Fingers: THUMBS;
Patterns: Loops & Whorls; Result: Symbol – S,
M, L
 CLASSIFICATION
• PRIMARY: Fingers: All; Patterns: Whorls;
Result: Numerical
1 2 3 4 5
16 16 8 8 4

6 7 8 9 10
4 2 2 1 1
 CLASSIFICATION
• SECONDARY: Fingers: (a) Capital Letter: Index Fingers;
(b) Small Letter: Fingers other than Index; Patterns: All;
Result: Symbol
• SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION: Fingers: Index,
Middle, Ring; Patterns: Loops & Whorls; Result: Symbol
• FINAL CLASSIFICATION: Ridge Count of Right Little
Finger; Fingers: (1) primarily: right little finger; (2)
substitutionarily: left little finger; Patterns: Loops
(primarily); Whorls (in the absence of loops); Result:
Numerical
 Three-Fold Rule in Investigation

• Identify
• Locate
• Provide evidence of guilt
 Measures against Counterfeiting

• Watermarks: silhouette
• Security Fiber: blue & red
• Security Thread: vertical
• Iridescent Band: gold
 Action of Firearm
• Single Shot: 1 shot per loading
(musket)
• Repeating/repeater: several
shots in one loading (revolver)
 Parts of Polygraph
• Pneumograph: records breathing
• Galvanograph: records skin resistance
• Cardiograph: records – (1) pulse rate, (2) heart
rate
• Kymograph: part of polygraph that makes
recording possible – paper, inking system,
running of paper horizontally which is about 6
to 12 inches
 Answering MCQ
• Familiarity Principle: Most applicable
criminalistics
– What subject/topic?
– Are the choices being used in the subject/topic?
• Reverse Familiarity: where you know 3 choices
except one. Usually, that one which is
unfamiliar is correct answer.
Personalities in Police Photography
• Joseph Nicephore Niepce - 1st to obtain permanent record
of light; 1st photograph, a product of HELIOGRAPHY –
writing of the sun: HELIOGRAPH
• Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre – daguerreotype: POSITIVE
(IMAGE) PROCESS – mirror image
• William Henry Fox Talbot – talbotype or calotype: NEGATIVE
(to positive) PROCESS
• Frederick William Herschel: coined photography; cyanotype
process: blue processing
• Dr. Archibald Rudolph Reiss – established world’s earliest
forensic laboratory
Questioned Document Examination: Stages

• Authenticity: about genuineness of document

• Identity
• Origin
 Ammunition
• Applies to a number of cartridges
• Single unit
• Single unfired unit
• Cartridge
– Bullet: ball, shot, pellet, slug, lead, projectile, missile
– Cartridge case: casing
– Gunpowder (low explosive: detonates by heat): propellant; (1) black
powder: PSC – (a) potassium nitrate or saltpeter, (b) sulfur, (c)
charcoal/carbon; (2) smokeless: (a) nitrocellulose, (b) nitroglycerin, (c)
vaseline
– Primer (primary explosive – detonates by shock (percussion ignition)):
PAF – (a) Potassium Chlorate, (b) Antimony Sulfide, (c) Fulminate Mercury
 Holograph
• Holo: entire/whole
• Graph: writing
 Elements of Camera
• Light-tight box: devoid of light – (a) area
behind the mirror, (b) film area, (c) shutter
area
• Lens: eye/opening
• Shutter: barrier of rays of light; it is determine
by time
• Film holder
 Synchronization in Photography
• Film: ex. ASA 100 film, set the camera to ASA
100
• Flash unit: accessory (not part of camera);
camera & flash unit must go together.
SYN – to go with
CHRONOS – time
GUIDE NUMBER: at back of flash unit giving the ff
data: (a) Film Speed, (b) Distance, (c) Aperture
 Procedure in Attachment of
Polygraph Component
• Pneumograph: rubber convoluted tubes
– Abdomen (bronze)
– Chest (gold)
• Galvanograph: finger plates
– Ideally: (tip or first joint) index and ring fingers
– Non-dominant hand: rationale – less callous
• Cardiograph: rubber bladder
– Biceps (targeting brachial artery)
– 1 inch above the joint (joing humerus & forearm)
 Polygraph
• Third pen and longest: galvanograph section
 Rhythm
• Regular/periodic movement or recurrence
• Natural Variation: SIGN OF GENUINENESS
• Retracing (going back: to cross letter t or put a
dot in letter i); sign of genuineness vs
Retouching/Patching (going back over
defective stroke); sign of forgery
• Shading: widening
 Terminologies
• Crime Data: statistics
• Direct evidence: evidence w/o presumption;
photograph does qualify as it is secondary
evidence (documentary evidence)
• Memory refresher: notes of investigator or
patrol officer
• Record/preservation: objective of crime scene
photography
 Pallor Mortis
• Paleness of death
• When skin is pale due to ABSENCE OF
CAPILLARY CIRCULATION
 SKIN
• Largest organ of human body
• Layers: Epidermis (outer layer) & Dermis (inner
layer)
• Other term for epidermis: SCARF SKIN: dead, dry, &
peeled away skin
• John Dillinger: person who attempted & failed to
eradicate his friction ridges (using acid of pineapple)
• Can fingerprints be permanently effaced? NO
• Can fingerprints be forged? NO
 EPIDERMIS: Layers
• Stratum Corneum: main layer of epidermis; horny
layer; consists of dead cells
• Stratum Lucidum: translucent layer of skin, found only
in palm and soles
• Stratum Granulosum: last living layer; start of dying
process (keratinization)
• Stratum Spinosum: occupies large part of epidermis;
spinous layer or many-sided cells
• Stratum Germinativum: generating layer (news cells
are created).
 Defects of Typewriting
• Typeface Defects:
– Permanent/patent defects: broken typeface, worn-out
typeface
– Temporary/transitory defects: cleaning
• Alignment Defects:
– Horizontal malalignment: print/right/left
– Vertical malalignment: print/above/below
– Twisted/tilted: lean/right/left
– Off-its feet: heavier
– Rebound: double impression
 3 Stages of Muscles
(after death)
• 1st Stage: Primary Flaccidity/Relaxation – body
becomes soft immediately after death
• 2nd Stage: Post Mortem Rigidity, Cadaveric Rigidity,
Rigor Mortis – stiffening of the body after death
• 3rd Stage: Secondary Flaccidity/Relaxation –
softening of body by dissolution of proteins
– Putrefaction
– Body will no longer respond to mechanical & electrical
stimulus
 Quasi-Rigor Mortis
• Cadaveric Spasm
– A.k.a. Instantaneous rigor
– Happens at the moment of death
– Involves only certain groups of muscles
– Cause: injury to the nervous system
• Heat Stiffening: body is exposed to over 750 C
– Pugilistic attitude (position); boxer’s position; body sinks; skeletal
identification is not effective. Best is dental identification
(orthodontology)
• Cold Stiffening: When body is immersed in water or exposed to
cold environment; solidification of fat – SAPONIFICATION or
ADIPOCERE FORMATION (soaping of body fat)
 Procedural Matters in Polygraph
• Rubber convoluted tube: 7 inches
• Rubber tubing: 6 feet
 Intracranial
• Intra – within
• Cranial – cranium or skull
• Superciliary ridges – male: less sharp; female:
sharp
 Post Mortem Examinations vs Autopsy

• PM Examinations – about external

examination of body without incision (cutting)
• Autopsy – involves incision (human body)
• Necropsy – incision of animal body to
determine cause of death
• Biopsy – examination of living organism
• Ante Mortem – something that happens
before death
 VIPs in Polygraphy
• Cesare Lombroso – 1st to use scientific instrument to
detect deception using HYDROSPHYGMOGRAPH
• John Augustus Larson – father of lie detection; 1st to
combine components into one machine; coined the
word POLYGRAPH: polugraphos: many writings
• William Moulton Marston – father of polygraphy;
systolic blood pressure; 1st to testify findings on lying
using systolic blood pressure; author of character
WONDER WOMAN.
• Leonarde Keeler – father of modern polygraphy
 Answering MCQ
• No Apophenia
– Apophenia: interpreting – seeing or hearing –
something which is not really existing.
IMAGINATION
 Livor Mortis
• A.k.a. Post-mortem lividity, cadaveric lividity, post
mortem suggillation, post-mortem discoloration,
hypostatic lividity
• Cause: going down of body fluids to the most
dependent portion (by pull of gravity): dead body
lying on his/her stomach: discoloration is observed
in anterior portion of body (front portion); dead
body lying on his/her back: discoloration is
observed in posterior portion of body
 LIVOR MORTIS
• Start: 3 – 6 hrs; fully developed: 12 hrs
• Value: time of death and place of death
• Color of Livor Mortis
– Usual color: purplish red
– Exposed to heat/cold: bright red
– CO poisoning: pinkish lividity (CO + Hemoglobin =
carboxyhemoglobin (pink in color)
• General observation: CO poisoning attached to pink
color. EXCEPTION: DIAPHANOUS TEST: CO poisoning is
see as YELLOW.
 Women Thing
• Start of development of breast: 13 – 14 yrs old
• Menopausal period: 45 yrs
• Pubic hair thickening: 13 yrs
 Men Thing
• Pubic hair thickening: 14 yrs
• Mustache & Beard: 16 – 18 yrs old
 Complete Firearm: R.A. 10591
• Barrel
• Frame
• Receiver
• HOMICIDE/MURDER: illegal possession of
firearms is already absorbed in the crime and
considered aggravating circumstance. Meaning,
there is no separate crimes of homicide or
murder, as the case may be, and illegal
possession of firearms.
 Paraffin-Diphenylamine Test
• Discovered by Gonzalo Iturrioz of Cuba
• SC ruled that this is INCONCLUSIVE or NOT
CONCLUSIVE that nitrates are specific to
gunpowder as there are various of nitrates:
fertilizer, tobacco, etc.
• Reagent: Lunge’s Reagent – Diphenylamine:
blue specks as positive reaction
 Film: Characteristics
• Emulsion Speed: how fast film can capture light.
– DIN: Deustche Industrie Normen; expressed in logarithmic value
(degrees); ex. 210
– ASA: American Standards Association; expressed in arithmetical
value; ex. 100
– ISO: International Standards Organization; 100/ 210
– What is the number to be added to the DIN rating to correspond to
the next ASA rating?
– Principle: The higher the emulsion speed of film, the faster film can
capture light.
• Spectral Sensitivity
• Granularity
 DIN – ASA
DIN ASA
210 100
240 200
270 400
300 800
330 1000
 Spectral Sensitivity
• Refers to the sensitivity of film to certain spectrum or
wavelength.
– Monochromatic: sensitive to one color; ex. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM
– senstive blue & UV rays
– Orthochromatic: NOT RED COLOR: not sensitive to red color; this
can be processed in a darkroom using safelight (red light).
– Panchromatic: ALL COLOR: sensitive to all colors; film with the
most natural and realistic reproduction of colors.
– Infrared: film with the longest range of sensitivity; use: to provide
contrast to obscurred or obliterated image. In military, it is used
to distinguish camouflage from foliage (plants)
NOTE: All films are sensitive to UV rays.
 Granularity
• Refers to the size of grains in the image (film
or paper)
• Principle: The higher the emulsion speed of
film, the bigger the grains; the lower the
emulsion speed of film, the finer the grains.
• Ex: 100, 200, 400, 800. In this set, 100 ASA is
the film with the finest grains, while 800 ASA
has the biggest grains.
 Polygraph Question & Test
• How many questions: 12
• How many tests: 5:
– General Question Test
– Mixed Question Test
– Spot Responder Test
– Card or Number Test
– Silent Answer Test
 Definition of Firearms
• Any weapon that discharged projectile by the
expansive force of gases
– Musket
– Shotgun
– Other firearms
 Wounds by Instrument Used
• Blunt Instrument: no sharpness
– Contusion: effusion/extravasation/congestion of
blood in particular part of body as part reparative
mechanism; pasa
– Hematoma: effusion/extravasation/congestion of
blood + blood cyst/cavity/edema; bukol; usually
observed in areas of body where bones are
superficially located.
– Laceration: tearing of skin; putok
 Wounds by Instrument Used
• Sharp Instrument:
– Sharp-pointed: PUNCTURED WOUND
– Sharp-edged: INCISED WOUND
– Sharp-pointed & sharp-edged: STAB WOUND
 Polygraph: Tracing
• Systolic Blood Pressure: High pressure; heart
contracts – blood is taken AWAY from the
heart through ARTERIES; tracing: high point or
upward movement of cardio pen
• Diastolic Blood Pressure: Low pressure; heart
relaxes – blood is taken BACK to the heart
through VEINS; tracing: low point or
downward movement of cardio pen
 Irrelevant-Relevant-Control
• General Observation:
– If no mention of crime: control & irrelevant. It is
control question if the question has SIMILAR
NATURE with the crime under investigation.
– If there is mention of crime: control & relevant. It
is relevant when the mention of a crime is specific
to the case under investigation. If there is a
mention of a crime yet, it is not specific to the case
under investigation, then it is control question.
 Answering MCQ
• Watch out for known phrases because you can apply the
PLEASANT TO CONTINUE TECHNIQUE. Ex. Superficial layer
of skin, impending death, spontaneous desitance
• Alignment Principle: Analyzing the structure of question:
stem (body of question) & choices
– General Question = General Answer
– Specific Question = Specific Answer
– Plural Question = Plural Answer
– Singular Question = Singular Answer
– Firearm = Firearm
– To be used in situation when two choices are equally strong.
 Types Lines
• Usually found in Loops & Whorls
• Difficult to define in Arches
• Definition/Elements
– 2 innermost ridges
– Start parallel
– Diverge
– Surround or tend to surround the PATTERN AREA:
enclosed by type lines; core – inner terminus, delta
– outer terminus, other ridges
 Photographic Exhibits
• Display Exhibits – bromide enlargements
which are held by an easel
• Cut-out Exhibits – exhibits which are cut-outs
of letters or words
• Hand exhibits – to be held to individual jurors
 Answering MCQ
• Familiarity Principle
– What subject/topic?
– Are the choices being used in the subject or topic?
 Insufficient Recurve
• Recurve that contains appendage abutting it at
right angle.
 Male vs Female
• Hemorrhage: male will survive
• Starvation: female will survive
• Last to putrefy in female: uterus
• Last to putrefy in male: prostate
 Rolling of Fingers
• Thumbs TOWARDS the body of the subject
• Other fingers AWAY from the body of the subject
• Size of FP Card: 8" x 8"
• Size of FP Chart or Exhibit: 8" x 10"
• Upper 10 of FP Card (10 blocks): Rolled
Impression
• Lower portion of FP: Plain Impression (fixed &
simultaneous)
 FP Technician & Subject
• If taking right hand, technician is left of
subject.
• If taking left hand, technician is right of
subject.
• Inking and printing are done separately for
each finger.
 Answering MCQ
• Absolute Choices: always, never – usually
wrong
• Non-committal choices: sometimes, may be,
perhaps, it depends, etc. – usually wrong
 Effect of Wound
• Mortal Wound: heart, big blood vessels, lungs,
brain, stomach, liver, spleen – capable of
causing death
• Non-mortal wound: areas other than
mentioned above
 Contributions of Certain Persons
• Francis Galton: FP – 1 in 64 billion possibility of two
fingerprints repeating; polygraph – invented Word Association
Test: Yes or No Question where examiner is concerned with
response time of subject to determine truthfulness.
• Lombroso: Sociology of Crime & Ethics: Father of Criminology;
Biological Positivism (Italian School); polygraph –
hydrosphygmograph
• John Howard: Corrections – Prison Reformer
• Father Cook: Corrections – Probation: followed the footsteps
of John Augustus: Father of Probation; Boston (Massachusetts)
shoemaker; probation – testing period
 Essential Photographic Rays
• XUVI
– X-ray: 1 – 30 nm
– Ultraviolet: 30 – 400 nm
– Visible: 400 – 700 nm
– Infrared:700+ nm
 Infrared
• Obliterated
• Obscurring
• Luminescence
• Charred document
• To provide contrast
 Forgery
• Simple Forgery
– Forger has no model signature upon which to
copy.
– Simply writes signature in his own handwriting
purporting it to be signature of a certain person.
– No effort to effect resemblance
– Product: SPURIOUS SIGNATURE
– Most commonly resorted method of forgery
– Napoles’ forgery
 Forgery
• Traced Forgery
– Has model signature.
– Method: Tracing – carbon, transmitted light,
pencil, indentation – other term is SECOND PAGE
WRITING
– Lacks skill
– Effort to effect resemblance.
– Product: exact FACSIMILE – exact replica
 Forgery
• Simulated Forgery
– A.k.a. Freehand imitation
– Has model signature
– Most skillful
– Product: copied forgery
 Important Terms in Photography
• Photomicrography – camera + microscope:
photographing of image seen under a microscope
• Microphotography – to make small photograph;
ex. NSO birth certificate being microfilmed
• Macrophotography – close up; to make big
photograph
• Photomacrography – ex. Taking photograph of
image seen under a comparator
Topic discusses about Methods of Detecting
Cessation of Heart Action & Circulation (Solis)
a. Examination of Heart
1. Palpation of Pulse – wrist & at neck
2. Auscultation for Heart Sound at Precordial Area – hear
sound
3. Fluoroscopic Examination – seeing shadow of heart
when contracting
4. Electrocardiograph – heart beat recorded by
electrocardiograph machine
Topic discusses about Methods of Detecting
Cessation of Heart Action & Circulation (Solis)
b. Examination of Peripheral Circulation
1. Magnus’ Test – tying ligature around base of
finger. (1) alive – no blood site tied w/ ligature;
(2) dead – no change in color
2. Opening of Small Artery – (1) alive –blood
jerking; (2) dead – no jerking
b. Examination of Peripheral Circulation
3. Icard’s Test – injection of fluorescein. (1) alive – skin:
greenish-yellow discoloration; (2) dead – no
discoloration
4. Pressure on Fingernails – (1) alive – paleness on site of
application of pressure; (2) dead – no change of color
5. Diaphanous Test – fingers spread wide & viewed thru
strong light. (1) alive – red; (2) dead – yellow (3) alive
(anemic) – yellow; (4) Alive carbon monoxide
poisoning - yellow
b. Examination of Peripheral Circulation
6. Application of Heat on Skin – (1) alive – blister;
(2) dead – no blister
7. Palpation of Radial Pulse – feeling with fingers.
(1) rhythmic pulsation of vessel; (2) dead – not
pulsation
8. Dropping of Melted Wax – dropped on breast.
(1)alive – inflammatory edema (swelling) at site
of application; (2) dead – no inflammatory
 Writing Movement
• Finger movement: push (extensor) & pull
(flexor)
• Hand movement: lateral movement; pivot
point is wrist
• Forearm movement: lateral movement; pivot
point is elbow
• Whole arm movement: entire
 Rifling
• Groove: depressed/canal portion of gun barrel
• Land: original metal remaining after making a
groove; elevated portion
• Bullet passing through a gun barrel bears
NEGATIVE markings of gun barrel.
– Groovemarks: elevated portion of bullet
– Landmarks: depressed portion of bullet
Class Characteristics of Certain Gun
• Browning Type: 6 – R
• Colt Type: 6 – L
• S & W Type: 5 – R
• Steyr Type: 4 – R
• Army Type: 4 – R – G3x
• Webley Type: 7 – R
• Ratio of Lands and Grooves: (1) 1:1, (2) G:
wide = L: narrow, (3) L: wide = G: narrow
 Terminologies in Ballistics
• Translational – shifting of a body from one place
in time to another.
• Yaw: unstable flight of bullet after encountering a
barrier
• Keyhole: position of bullet which is sideways
when it hits the target; appearing to be like hole
for a key in a door.
• Bullet Wipe: traces of bullet material on a
particular surface
 Forensic Medicine Terminologies
• Egress: exit
• Ingress: entrance
• Penetrating: wound without exit
• Perforating: wound with exit
 Guilt Complex Reaction
• Subject thinks of crimes he previously committed while being
currently questioned of a different crime. He reacts with the
same consistency in
– Relevant
– Control
• Irrelevant Question – purpose: to establish subject’s normal
pattern of tracing
• Control Question – invented Reid; purpose: to arouse reaction to
innocent subject
• Relevant Question – purpose: to arouse reaction to lying subject
• Guilt Complex Test: consists additional relevant questions
 Value of Photograph
• Photograph is the best preservation
technique.
• Before moving anything at the crime scene, it
should be photographed first, EXCEPT in the
following
– Saving life activities
– Evidence is fragile & outdoor. Ex. Shoeprints
outdoor and in inclement weather, this prints
should be casted.
 Equipment in Forensic Ballistics
• Onoscope: optical instrument that can be inserted
inside the gun barrel to examine its rifling.
• Helixometer: measuring the pitch of rifling
• Stereoscope: microscope that can view the 3
dimensions of an object; useful for ballistics evidence
as it has greater working distance and wider field of
view
• Comparison Microscope: used to compare to ballistics
evidence such as by juxtaposition, superimposition,
and side-by-side comparison
 Answering MCQ
• But/While Technique
– But/while: signifies contracdicting statements
– Destroyed/persihed but/while permanency
 Ridge Characteristics
• A.k.a. Minutiae, Galton Points
• Island – dot or fragment
• Enclosure – one ridge dividing into and
converging into one ridge again at some point
• Bifurcation – one ridge divides itself into two
or more branches
 ATA & NOTA Principle
• All of the above: it has higher possibility to be
the correct answer
• None of the above: it has lower possibility to
be the correct answer
 Heat or Shock
• Primer: ignites by shock (percussion ignition:
Alexander John Forsyth)
• Propellant: ignites by heat (European concept:
Berthold Schwartz; Asian concept: Chinese)
• Explosives: ignites/explodes/detonates: shock
or heat
 Bending of Light
• Bending: focusing of light
– Reflection: bouncing of light
• Regular: reflecting surface is smooth.
• Irregular: reflecting surface is rough.
– Refraction: change of direction of light due to change in
speed; observed when light enters a medium such glass or
water
– Diffraction: around small obstacles/objects; ex.
HOLOGRAM: image that changes color or formation when
looked at from different direction
• Absorption
 Type of Cartridge According to Head
• Rimmed Type: protruding rim/rim diameter is
greater than the body; revolver
• Semi-Rimmed Type: slightly protruding/greater
• Rimless Type: rim at level or equal to the body
of cartridge; semi-automatic
• Rebated Type: rim is smaller than the body of
cartridge
• Belted Type: belt around body of the cartridge
 Irrespirable Gases
• CO: silent killer
• CO2
• Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S): rotten egg
• Hydrogen Cyanide
 Terms in Forensic Medicine
• Maceration: digestion of fetus inside stomach
of a dead pregnant woman
• Saponification: a.k.a. Adipocere formation –
solidification of fat; soaping of fat
 Breechblock vs Breechface
• Breechblock: “The metal part that closes the breech
end of the barrel of a breechloading gun and that is
removed to insert a cartridge and replaced before
firing.” (SOURCE: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.
All rights reserved.)

• Breechface: “In firearms the breech face,

also breechface, is the surface of the bolt or slide
that locks against the rear of the chamber so that
one can fire a cartridge.” (SOURCE: Breechface. (2012, September 9). Retrieved
September 21, 2012, from Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breechface)
 Bones
• Adults: 206
• Infants: 270 – 300 (mostly cartilage)
• Largest bone: pelvic bone (pelvis) that
distinguishes male from female
• Smallest bone: stirrup
• Longest and strongest bone: femur
 Pre-Test Interview
• Primary purpose: prepare/condition subject for test
(Source: Caballero & Manwong)

• Informal interview (20-30 minutes)

– Determine whether subject has medical/psychiatric
condition/used drugs
– Explain to subject purpose of examination
– Develop test questions
– Relieve truthful subject of apprehension
– Satisfy deceptive subject to efficiency of technique
– Know anti-social activity/criminal record of subject (SOURCE: Solis)
 Indications or Symptoms
of Forgery
• hesitations – pen-stops at unusual places
• non-continuous strokes
• abrupt changes in direction of lines or strokes,
showing uncertainty of movements
• concealed or hidden joining
• bulbous or blunt initial and terminal strokes
• misplaced shading
• shadings in more than one direction
 Indications or Symptoms
of Forgery
• lack of variation of pen pressure
• capricious change of slant
• defective line quality
• unnecessary, careful patching (“fraudulent
retouching”)
• unnatural pen-lifts
• tremors
• presence of carbon, pencil, or indented outlines
along the strokes of “inked” patterns
 Penlift vs Hiatus
• Penlift & Hiatus: interruption/gap in a stroke
– Penlift: interruption/gap is due to lifting of pen off
the paper; commonly observed in forgery
– Hiatus: interruption/gap is due to defective
writing instrument; commonly observed in
genuine handwriting
 Retracing vs Retouching/Patching
• Retracing and Retouching/Patching: goes back
– Retracing: going back is to make cross line in letter
t or i.
– Retouching/patching: going back is due to
defective writing stroke.
 Medico-Legal Aspects of
Death
Kinds of Death:
a. Somatic Death/Clinical Death: Complete,
persistent & continuous cessation of vital
functions of brain, heart & lungs
b. Molecular/Cellular Death: death of animal life
or individual cells (3-6 hrs)
c. Apparent Death/State of Suspended
Animation: not really death; temporary/transient
loss of consciousness; takes place: uremia,
catalepsy, hysteria, drowning, electrocution,
newly-born infant; purpose of classification: to
prevent premature burial
 Musculo-Skeletal Injuries
• Sprain: muscle; ankle
• Strain: muscle; overstretching of muscle
• Dislocation: bone; displacement of articular
surface of the bone
• Fracture: bone; solution (disruption) of
continuity of the bone
• Subluxation: bone; displacement/dislocation
of spinal column
 Peak of Tension Test
• Given when subject is NOT YET INFORMED.
• How many questions in Peak of Tension Test: 7
• Stealing of Rolex Watch
1. Did you steal the Rado watch of Juan? (padding)
2. Did you steal the Bolivia watch of Juan? (padding)
3. Did you steal the Rolex watch of Juan?
4. Did you steal the Citizen watch of Juan? (padding)
5. --------
6. --------
7. --------
 Control of Camera
• Focusing: setting of the proper distance in order to form
sharp image
– Rangefinder type: (1) coincidence type – out of focus subject
appears double; (2) split type – out of focus subject appears divided
– Ground glass type: out of focus subject appears blurred
– Scale bed type: (obsolete) estimation/calculation of distance of
subject in order to focus
• Diaphragm – opening, lens opening, relative aperture,
aperture; akin to an iris of eye
• Shutter – barrier of rays of light; prevents light from exposing
film.
 Diaphragm
• Expressed: focal ratio – f/#, f/stops (in fraction)
• Usual # in aperture: 3.5, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22 = 1/3.5,
1/5.6....
• Principle: The smaller the number, the bigger the
opening; the bigger the number, the smaller the
opening.
• Purpose of Variable Opening: (1) to attain good
depth of field or (2) to highlight a particular
subject in the scene
 Depth of Field
• The nearest and farthest object in the same
sharpness.
• Principle in Depth of Field with Aperture: The smaller
the opening, the greater depth of field; the bigger the
opening, the poorer depth of field.
• Application to CS Photography: General Photographs:
aperture should be small to get the sharpness of the
entire scene.
• Depth of Field vs Hyperfocal Distance: 2 are concerned
with SHARPNESS
 Depth of Field vs Hyperfocal Distance

• Depth of Field: concerned with OPENING

(aperture).
• Hyperfocal Distance: concerned with where
the camera is FOCUSED.
 Highlighting a Scene
• Highlight in aperture: the opening is big; result:
particular object/image/person will be sharp while
the foreground and background are less sharp or
blurred.
– Application in CS Photography: Medium Range
Photography – aperture set to big opening to highlight
evidence with particular landmark
• Highlight in enlarging: Burning In – refers to
highlighting a part of the image by overexposure
while the parts will be little darker.
Application of Principle of Aperture
• Given: Outdoor in a Bright Sunlight:
– Shutter speed: 1/125
– Aperture: f/11
• Question: What is the aperture in DULL
SUNLIGHT?
a. 1/125, f/16
b. 1/125, f/8 – Hazy Sunlight: bigger than f/11
c. 1/125, f/5.6
d. 1/125, f/22
 Shutter
• Barrier of rays of light
• Time shutter is open to expose film.
• Expressed in fraction of a second: 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,
30, 60, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000...= 1/1, ½, ¼,
1/8.....
• Principle in Shutter Speed: The smaller the
number, the slower the shutter speed; the
bigger the number, the faster the shutter speed.
 Situations Shutter Speed
Should Be Especially Adjusted
• Capture fast moving object in the air: fast shutter
speed is required.
• Low-lighting condition: slow shutter speed is
required.
• Maximize sharpness of scene: slow shutter speed
is required.
• Application in Police Photography: Freeze moving
vehicle in the air to get a clear view of plate
number.
 Exposure
• The proper combination between aperture
and shutter speed.
• Principle of Exposure: Bigger aperture, faster
shutter speed; smaller aperture, slower
shutter speed. This is known as
COMPENSATION.
• Exposure Priority: What setting – aperture or
shutter – to adjust first?
 Exposure Priority
• Aperture Priority: Purpose is to get a good
depth of field or to highlight an object or
subject in the scene. Aperture is set first and
shutter speed should compensate.
• Shutter Speed Priority: Purpose is to freeze
moving object, to compensate with low-
lighting condition, and to maximize sharpness.
Shutter speed is set first and aperture should
compensate.
 Important Things to Remember in Shutter
Speed
• Handheld photography: minimum shutter speed is 1/30 of a
second. Meaning, you cannot go down to 1/15 of a second or
on much slower. Below 1/30, tripod should be used.
• Situation: no natural & artificial light at night: Special
adjustment of shutter
– Bulb Setting: allows shutter to open for as long as the shutter release
button is held.
– Time Setting: allows shutter to open for as long as the shutter release
button is NOT pressed again.
• Flash Photography: Synchronization of flash unit and camer is
done by setting shutter into synchronization number (red
number)
 Interview
• Warm up: to establish rapport – good relationship
between the investigator and interviewee
• Discussion common interest about life and everything where
interviewee is interested.
• Leading questions in interview is NOT IDEAL
because there is element of SUGGESTION.
• Questions: calling for a narrative answer;
statements from witness himself/herself.
– Easily understood
 Light as a Factor in Identification
• Broad daylight
– 100 yards: identifiable if the person is known.
– 25 yards: identifiable if the person is almost
stranger.
• Moonlight: 16 – 17 yards
• Starlight: 10 – 13 yards
 Classification of Scarred,
Amputated or Missing at Birth
• General: Classification of fingers are based on
– General Classification: Pattern Type
– Subclassification: Ridge Counting or Tracing
• Scarred Patterns: Pattern which have been injured
permanently rendering classification very difficult.
• Amputated: cutting of finger by medical or other
operation
• Missing at Birth: Congenital defect where a finger
or fingers are missing.
 Scarred Patterns: Rules
• So Scarred Patterns:
– General Classification: Pattern Type cannot be determined
– Subclassification: RC & RT – cannot be determined
– Classification: CORRESPONDING/OPPOSITE FINGER
• Partially Scarred Pattern (large scar around core area)
– General Classification: Pattern Type cannot be determined
– Subclassification: RC & RT – can be determined
– Classification: (1) General Classification: corresponding
finger; (2) RC or RT: classification is based on the scarred
finger
 Scarred Patterns: Rules
• Partially Scarred (general classification is determinable)
– General Classification: Pattern Type can be determined
– Subclassification: RC & RT – cannot be determined
– Classification: (1) General Classification: taken from scarred
finger; (2) Subclassification: taken from corresponding finger
• So Scarred in Both Fingers
– General Classification: Pattern Type cannot be determined
– Subclassification: RC & RT – cannot be determined
– Corresponding finger: similarly situated
– Classification: WHORLS, MEETING
 Algor Mortis
• Cooling of body after death
• One of the earliest signs of death
• 15 – 20 minutes after death
• Exceptional delay of cooling: Post Mortem
Caloricity as when a person dies of pyrexia
(fever) or of tetanus.
 Taking CS Photography
• Camera position: ideal/usual – EYE LEVEL –
describes a position when a photographer
takes photograph from a standing position.
• Unusual position will result distortion in
perspective (what is seen in the camera).
 Major Classification
• Fingers: THUMBS
• Patterns: LOOPS & WHORLS
• Loops: Ridge Counted & corresponded with
SYMBOLS – Small, Medium, Large
• Whorls: Ridge Traced & corresponded with
SYMBOLS – Inner, Outer, Meeting
 Tables for Loops in Major Classification
Table 1: For Left Thumb and Right Thumb if ridge count of left thumb is less than 17
Symbol Ridge Count
SMALL (S) 1 – 11
MEDIUM (M) 12 – 16
LARGE (L) 17 or more

Table 2: Table for Right Thumb if ridge count of left thumb is 17 or more
Symbol Ridge Count
SMALL (S) 1 – 17
MEDIUM (M) 18 – 22
LARGE (L) 23 or more
 Vital Reactions
• Sum total of the reactions of a living organism.
– Rubor: redness of part of body due to blood
rushing to the injured part for reparative
mechanism.
– Calor: sensation of heat
– Dolor: sensation of pain
– Loss of function: automatic mechanism of body to
prevent certain part of body from further damage.
 History of Polygraph
• Larson – combined pneumograph &
cardiograph (Breadboard Polygraph)
• Keeler – invented KYMOGRAPH; combined
GALVANOGRAPH
 Complementary Colors
• Primary Colors
– Coloring Matters: Red, Yellow, Blue
– Colors of Light: Red, Green, Blue
– Red + Green = Yellow; Green + Blue = Cyan; Blue +
Red = Magenta
– Produce White Color
• Complementary color of CYAN: RED
• Complementary color of YELLOW: BLUE
• Complementary color of MAGENTA: GREEN
 Types of Sunlight
• Bright: Shadow – deep and uniform
• Hazy: Shadow – transparent
• Dull: Shadow – none
 Ultraviolet Light
• Fluorescence
• Use: invisible image – ex. Semen, blood &
other biological evidence
• Secret inks
• Sympathetic inks
 Oblique
• Side
• Oblique Light – light that is placed sideways to show
the shadow of surface abraded by mechanical eraser
(ex. Rubber eraser)
• Oblique Position – applicable in photography esp.
when photographer would like to show the three
dimensions of object:
– Length
– Width
– Height (depth)
 A-B-O System of Blood Grouping
• Karl Landsteiner in 1901
Blood Type Agglutinogen Anti-body
A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB AB Both anti-A & anti-B
O O None

• AB – universal receiver
• O – universal donor/giver
 Genotyping
• A, B = dominant (manifests)
• AB = co-dominant
• O = recessive (hides)
A B

A AA AB

O A(O) B(O)

• POSSIBLE: A, B, AB
• IMPOSSIBLE: O
 Acetic Acid
• Acetic acid is known for its household name as
VINEGAR.
• Weak acid that will neutralize a strong acid
such as the developer.
 Killing
• Mercy killing: EUTHANASIA
• Attempt to prolong life: DYSTHANASIA
 Legal/Forensic Medicine vs Medical
Jurisprudence
• Legal/Forensic Medicine – medicine applied to
law
• Medical Jurisprudence – law applied to
practice of medicine
 Enlarging Process
• Conversion of negative image into positive image
• Burning in: highlighting part of the negative,
rendering other areas darker.
• Vignetting: rendering other areas of the negative
in shadow to emphasize certain area of negative.
• Cropping: taking out unwanted portion of the
negative
 Subsecondary Classification
Index Middle Ring
Inner (I) 1–9 1 – 10 1 – 13
Outer (O) 10 or more 11 or more 14 or more
 LASER
• Light Amplification thru Stimulated Emission
of Radiation
• A.k.a. Coherent light
• Light emitted is RED.
 SINGLE LENS REFLEX
• One lens for viewing and recording into the
film.
• It prevents PARALLAX ERROR common in point
and shoot camera, box camera, viewfinder
camera, and twin lens reflex camera
• PARALLAX ERROR: The difference between
what is seen through the viewfinder and what
is recorded into the film.
 Related Terms to Dactyloscopy
• Poroscopy: study of pores; father of poroscopy: Edmund
Locard
• Podoscopy: study of soles of feet
• Chiroscopy: study of palm for identification
• Edgeoscopy: study of contours of ridges; Salil Kumar – father
of edgeoscopy
• Ridgeology – the study of the entire ridges: its edges, pores,
contours, shapes, etc. David Ashbaugh – father of ridgeology
• Chiloscopy – study of the pattern of the lips for identification
• Palmistry – study of palm for fortune telling
 Secondary Classification
• Capital Letter: Capitalization of the symbol of
pattern appearing on INDEX FINGERS
• Small Letter Group: Plain Arch, Tented Arch,
Radial Loop – small letter symbol of these
patterns if they appear in fingers other than
index fingers
 DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Discoverers: James Watson and Francis Crick
• DNA Fingerprinting: discovered by Alec Jeffries
• Structure of DNA: Double Helix
• Bases of DNA: Adenine, Guanine, Thymine &
Cytosine
 Summary of DNA
• Human beings have 100 trillion cells.
• Every cell has a NUCLEUS.
• Inside NUCLEUS – 46 chromosomes: 23 each
from father & mother
• Lies inside the CHROMOSOMES – DNA:
building blocks of life; blue print of life
• DNA – contains information concerning the
make up of a person
 Evidence Amenable to DNA
• blood and bloodstains
• semen and seminal stains
• hair with follicle/root
• saliva and buccal cells
• tissues and skin cells
• organs
• bone marrow and bones
• teeth
 Eros & Thanatos
• Eros: Alive
• Thanatos: Dead