ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY:

EQUINE HEAD AND DENTITION

Created by Chelsie Phillips
BSc (Hons) Equine Science Student
 CONTENTS
Main bones of the equine skull Dental physiology of Equidae
- Lateral view - Overview
- Ventral view
Physiology of Mastication
Bony features of the equine skull - How the equine mouth is specialised for
- Lateral view mastication
- Ventral view - The process of mastication
- Dorsal view - The process of mastication (2)
- Caudal view - Bones, muscles and structures that influence
- Rostral view mastication

Equine dentition > Anatomy of Masticatory Muscles

- Overview - Masseter m.
- Lateral view - Facial cutaneous m.
- Dorsal oblique view of mandible - Zygomatic m.
- Veterinary approach to dental formula - Nasolabial levator m.
- Triadan system – maxillary arcade - Canine m.
- Triadan system – mandibular arcade - Medial branch of nasolabial levator m.
- Incisors - Superior labial levator m.
- Incisors (2) - Buccinator m.
- Premolars and molars (Cheek teeth) - Temporalis m.
- Premolars and molars (Cheek teeth) (2) - Sternohydoideus and Omohydoideus
m.
 CONTENTS
Associated anatomy
- Blood supply
- Facial nerves

Common dental abnormalities

- Parrot mouth
- Plaque deposits
- Diastema
- Periodontitis
- Caries (Infundibular or peripheral)
- Enamel points and ulcerations

With thanks to…

 MAIN BONES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
LATERAL VIEW

Parietal bone Interparietal bone

Zygomatic bone Nasal bone
Frontal bone Maxilla
Lacrimal bone
Palantine bone,
Perpendicular plate
Incisor bone
Temporal bone
Occipital bone;
squamous part
Occipital bone;
lateral part

Occipital bone;
basilar part

Mandible
 MAIN BONES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
VENTRAL VIEW

Palantine bone Frontal bone

Occipital bone;
Vomer Spehnoid bone
Basilar part
Occipital bone;
Lateral part

Incisive bone Temporal bone;

Tympanic and
Maxilla Petrous parts
Temporal bone;
Squamous part
Zygomatic bone
 BONY FEATURES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
LATERAL VIEW
MandibularArticular
fossa Tubercle External sagittal crest
Coronoid process Nuchal crest
Infraorbital foramen
Fossa for Lacrimal soc Temporal fossa
Retroarticular process Zygomatic process
Nasoincisive notch Mastoid process
of Frontal bone

Nasal process of Incisive bone Condyloid fossa

Body of Incisive bone

Occipital condyle

Interalveolar Zygomatic arch

border Jugular process
Mental foramen Stylomastoid foramen
ExternalAngle
acoustic
of Madible
meatus
Styloid process
Body of Mandible Notch of
Ramus forMandible
Facial Vessels
Chondylar process
Facial crest
Mandibular notch
 BONY FEATURES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
VENTRAL VIEW
Occipital condyle
Foramen lacerum
Choanae Wings of vomer
Major palantine foramen Vomer Jugular foramen
Tympanic Bulla
Hamulus of Pterygoid bone
Palantine groove
Palantine fissure
Interincisive
Palantine process
canal of Maxilla

Rostral
Palantine process of end of facial
Incisive bonecrest
Osseous part
Foramen magnum
Caudal alar foramen
Retroarticular process
Hypoglossal canal Petrotympanic fissure
Articular Tubercle
Mandibular
fossa
of auditory tube ZygomaticExternal
arch acoustic meatus
Jugular process
 BONY FEATURES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
DORSAL VIEW
Zygomatic arch
Rostral Lacrimal processes
Zygomatic process
of Frontal bone Incisive Canal
Nasal process of
Body of Incisive bone
Incisive bone
Temporal line

Nuchal crest

Nasoincisive notch
External Sagittal crest
Facial crest
Temporal Fossa Infraorbital foramen
Orbit
Can you identify all of the bony features marked with the arrows?
Supraorbital foramen
 BONY FEATURES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
CAUDAL VIEW
Nuchal crest
Coronoid process
Mandibular fossa
Zygomatic Arch
Condylar process

Foramen Magnum

Occipital Condyle Mandibular foramen

Ramus of Mandible External Occipital

Protuberance

Body of Mandible Angle of Mandible

 BONY FEATURES OF THE EQUINE SKULL
ROSTRAL VIEW

Zygomatic process of
Frontal bone
Infraorbital foramen

Choanae
Facial crest

Nasal process of Incisive bone

Incisive bone
EQUINE DENTITION
OVERVIEW
The only brachydont teeth seen in equidae
Equine dentition is made up from hypsodont
are canines/tushes.
teeth, which means they continuously erupt
and have a large reserve crown + cementum The dental formula for deciduous teeth is:
peripheral to the crown enamel.
3 0 3
The equine mastication cycle occurs in a 2 𝐷 𝑖3 𝐷 𝑐0 𝐷 𝑝3 = 24
lateral plane which causes the occlusal
surfaces to become rough in appearance, The dental formula for permanent teeth is:
increasing the surface area for attrition to aid
the physical breakdown of the digestion 3 1 3 𝑜𝑟 4 3
2 𝐼3 𝐶1 𝑃 𝑀3 = 40 𝑜𝑟 42
process. 3

Equines have heterogeneous dentition

Or more simply:
consisting of Incisors, Canines, Premolars and 3−0−3
Molars. Deciduous formula: 3−0−3
A vestigial/absent P1 (also known as wolf 3−1−3 4 −3
teeth) may erupt in some equines often Permanent formula: 3−1−3 −3
causing issue with bitting resulting in removal.
 EQUINE DENTITION
LATERAL VIEW

Incisor teeth

Premolar teeth Molar teeth

EQUINE DENTITION
DORSAL OBLIQUE VIEW OF MANDIBLE

Molars
(M1, M2, M3)
Premolars
(P2, P3, P4)

Incisors
(I1, I2, I3)
EQUINE DENTITION
VETERINARY APPROACH TO DENTAL FORMULA
The equine skull is looked at in two main
arcade: the upper mandibular arcade and
the lower mandibular arcade.
This can then be further divided into four sections:
1-Left upper jaw
2-Right upper jaw
3-Left lower jaw
4-Right lower jaw
The two numbers that then follow this indicates the
specific tooth in that part of the jaw.
For example, incisors go from the centre to the
outside from 01 to 03 so to indicate the second
incisor of the left upper jaw, it would appear as 202.
 Note that 104, 105 and 204, 205 are
EQUINE DENTITION missing due to the absence of the first
TRIADAN SYSTEM MAXILLARY ARCADE premolar and canine teeth.
 Note that 404, 405 and 304, 305 are
EQUINE DENTITION missing due to the absence of the first
TRIADAN SYSTEM MANDIBULAR ARCADE premolar and canine teeth.

406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411

403
402
401

301
302
303 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311
 EQUINE DENTITION
INCISORS
Equines have a total of 12
3
incisor teeth = DF 𝑖 3
Cement covers the crown of the tooth. It is a
bone like substance that allows flexibility of the
tooth whilst providing an outer protective layer.

Crown Enamel is a protective under layer

which is said to be the hardest
substance in the body.
Dentine is a hard calcium substance,
similar to bone which is in the centre of the
Root tooth.

Incisors are specialised for cropping forage during mastication.

EQUINE DENTITION
INCISORS (2)

As equidae mature the pattern on the

tooth table alters with wear.

Transverse sections
The enamel of the incisors becomes
invaginated with wear, forming one
infundibulum.
5 years
As the tooth wears to this level, the dental
star and mark appear on the table.
9 years
Towards the root of the tooth, the table
decreases in size with only the star
apparent.
15-20 years
The changes in table pattern on incisors is
one method of age identification in equidae.
 EQUINE DENTITION
PREMOLARS AND MOLARS (CHEEK TEETH)
Unlike the Incisors, cheek teeth (premolars &
molars) have two infundibula (or cups) that
only form on the upper teeth. The lower teeth
have similar enamel folds but no infundibula.
Clinical crown The cement, enamel and dentine are
arranged in a similar manner.
The crown of these teeth are usually
Reserve crown maintained at 2cm above the gum line.
Difference between Premolars and Molars?
Premolars have deciduous predecessors. This means that the
Root permanent premolars push the deciduous premolars upwards
until they erupt from the gum. The force of the emerging
permanent premolars destroys the deciduous premolars at their
apices until just a cap is left, which will fall off. Molar will erupt in
their permanent form following this from 1 year old onwards.

Deciduous premolar caps

EQUINE DENTITION
PREMOLARS AND MOLARS (CHEEK TEETH) (2)

Upper cheek tooth Two infundibula on the upper tooth

Enamel ridges on both upper and lower teeth
Secondary dentine between the enamel folding

Difference between upper and lower cheek teeth?

Upper teeth are much wider with more complex
Lower cheek tooth enamel folds, creating two cement filled
infundibula.
Lower teeth have many enamel folds also but
no infundibula is formed.
Upper cheek teeth have between 3-4 roots
whereas lower cheek teeth have 2 roots (except
for the last lower molar with 3).
 DENTAL PHYSIOLOGY OF EQUIDAE
OVERVIEW

A usual equine diet consists of continuous grazing on

rough, in-digestible fibre, mostly from grass.
Incisors are well suited for the prehension and cutting of
food. They are curved convexly, tapering in from their
occlusal surface to the root.

The cheek teeth (P2,P3,P4 and M1,M2,M3) are well

suited for grinding tough feeds in preparation for
deglutition. The complicated enamel folds on the
occlusal surfaces provide a rough surface to enable this
along with the lateral matiscatory movements.
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
HOW THE EQUINE MOUTH IS SPECIALISED FOR MASTICATION

The equine mouth is anisognathic meaning the

maxillary arcade extends over mandibular arcade
(23% wider)

This creates a grinding surface to aid in the

breakdown of the high cellulose diet

Teeth engage into occlusion laterally and slide at a

medial-dorsal angle (shearing action or power
stroke)
Disengagement then allows mandible to rotate
laterally in dorsal arc.
Tight fitting cheeks holds food in the intradental oral
cavity.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
THE PROCESS OF MASTICATION
Process of chewing:
Repetitious cyclic movement, resulting in controlled
cyclic movement due to rhythmical contraction of all
Incisor Opening
contact stroke
muscle groups involved
- Opening = depression
- Closing = elevation
All muscles are supplied by 5th cranial nerve Power Closing
stroke stroke
Difference in mass between jaw elevators and depressors:
• Elevators => Masseter & Temporalis & Medial Pterygoid
muscles. No accepted start point
• Depressors => Digastricus, Geniohydeus, of this process.
Genioglossus, Sternohyoideus and Omohyoideus
muscles.
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
THE PROCESS OF MASTICATION (2)

Four phases to the chewing cycle: Fact:

 Single ingested measure = 10g
1: Opening of the mouth; • 60-70 chews per minute;
• Little energy requirement • maximum displacement of incisors = 4-4.5 cm.

2: Close mouth;  Horses tend to favour one direction of

• Moderate energy chewing:
• 10% of horses equal chewing
3: Working phase; • 90% preferred one side
• Maximum energy requirement
• Two jaws are pressed upon each other  Food consistency can influence the intensity of
and moved sideways across each other sideways movements:
• With dry food, the grinding movement of the
4: Relaxation phase; lower jaw is less pronounced.
• Jaw returns to normal position
 PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
BONES, MUSCLES AND STRUCTURES THAT INFLUENCE MASTICATION

Structures:
Palatine ridges – ridges on roof of oral cavity direct food bolus
Mucous membranes - keratinized epithelium on hard palate
Salivary glands – Parotid, Mandibular & Sublingual
Tissue on lips / tongue / buccal regions. Muscles:
Hold and control Temporomandipular joint:
Bones: Masseter
Mandible Temploralis
Alveolar - flexible and constantly remodels Pterygoids
Maxillary - contains upper cheek teeth
Incisive bone - rostral aspect of upper jaw
Temporomandipular joint - responsible for transverse stroke in lingual direction (medial).
Results in minimal opening of mouth and maximum side to side movement.
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Masseter muscle
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Broad, thick and flat in shape

Origin: Facial crest

Insertion Point: ventral and
caudal margins of the rami

Action: Elevate the lower jaw

providing power for mastication and
lateral excursion
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Facial Cutaneous muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal and thin in shape

Origin: anterior borders of the

masseters
Insertion Point: ventral borders of
the commisures of the lips
Action: food gathering and
expression
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Zygomatic muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal and thin in shape

Origin: below eyes on the

zygomatic arches
Insertion Point: caudal
commisures of the lips
Action: aid in food gathering,
expression and mouth closure
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Nasolabial Levator muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal and thin in shape

Origin: lacrimal bones

Insertion Point: upper lips

Action: aid in lateral movements of

the lips, expression and food
gathering
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Canine muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal in shape

Origin: in the area of the

infraorbital foramen
Insertion Point: lateral borders of
the nostril
Action: aid in air intake and
expression
 PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Medial Branch of Nasolabial
Levator muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal and thin in shape

Origin: lacrimal bones (pass

behind the canine muscles)
Insertion Point: lateral medial
borders of the upper lips
Action: add strength to the lips; aid in
food gathering and expression
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Superior Labial Levator
muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal and thin in shape

Origin: arises over the maxilla
running dorsorostrally to form a
common tendon with its
counterpart the other side
Insertion Point: upper lips
Action: responsible for the flehmen
response
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Buccinator muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Flat and broad in shape

Fill the rostral cheek of the horse

behind the commisures

Action: aid in presentation of food to

the cheek teeth
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Temporalis muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Longitudinal and thin in shape

Origin: nuchal crest

Insertion Point: coronoid process

Action: aid in mastication and mouth

closure
PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ANATOMY OF MASTICATORY MUSCLES
Sternohydoideus and
Omohyoideus muscles
Test yourself:
Before making the arrows appear on
your next click, try to identify the muscle
on the head.

Fills the throat latch

Insertion Point: hyoid apparatus

Action: aid in swallowing process

 PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ASSOCIATED ANATOMY - BLOOD SUPPLY
The masseteric artery and vein
The facial artery and vein enter the
face by the parotid duct. It can be
palpated on the medial side of the
mandible.
The artery then ascends along the
rostral margin of the masseter
before diverging into numerous
branches.
These various branches include
inferior/superior labial, lateral/dorsal
nasal and angularis oculi arteries.
The network of veins is similar.
These include the transverse facial
vein, the superficial temporal vein,
the deep facial vein and the buccal
vein.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION
ASSOCIATED ANATOMY – FACIAL NERVES
All masticatory muscles are supplied
by the 5th cranial nerve.
The facial nerve then divides into
dorsal and ventral buccal branches.
The smaller divisions of these
branches are seen running over the
masseter muscle.

The buccal branches of the facial nerve

Seen more clearly in this image

COMMON DENTAL ABNORMALITIES
PARROT MOUTH

Brachygnathia or “parrot mouth” is a congenital

and developmental condition whereby the lower
jaw is shorter than the upper causing an overbite
or overjet which affects incisor occlusion to a
degree (depending on the severity).

Depending on the severity, it can be treatable to

certain extents with surgery, however this would
need to be done within the first three months
after birth.

This condition can lead to secondary related

abnormalities, such as focal overgrowths or be
excessive transverse ridges (ETR’s), due to
uneven wear during mastication.
COMMON DENTAL ABNORMALITIES
PLAQUE DEPOSITS
Before treatment:

Plaque deposits are most commonly but

not restrictively seen in older horses
Plaque is an organic structure where
minerals are deposited causing a yellow-
brown colour

Canines, due to their function and After treatment:

location, do not receive as much contact
from rough forage and therefore receive
less “polishing”, leading to plaque build-
up
 COMMON DENTAL ABNORMALITIES
DIASTEMA

Diastemata are narrow openings between Note the food debris

adjacent teeth of the same type. fermenting in the diastemata
They can commonly be seen in older
horses due the roots of the teeth
being naturally narrower thus
diastemata appearing within the latter
stages of the eruption of the teeth.
They can occur in any aged horse due
to an insufficiently oblique-angled
position of the first or last two molars,
resulting in loss of gum line pressure.

Food may begin to accumulate in the diastemata causing

bacteria to multiple. This can then lead on to inflammation
of the gum line resulting in Periodontitis.
 COMMON DENTAL ABNORMALITIES
PERIODONTITIS
Periodontitis is a painful condition causing
damage to the gingival mucosa, cementum and in
more advanced cases, the Periodontal Ligament
(or fibres that make up the periodontal ligament
also known as Sharpey’s Fibres) which are
responsible for holding teeth into their alveolar
sockets.
This condition can lead to loss of adjacent
affected teeth, as well as potentially substantial
infections of the sinus in the maxillary arcades or
pus-filled fistula’s in the mandible if able to
Note the diastema’s collecting food
progress to these latter stages.
debris and the resulting inflamed
“Quidding” or dropping of food is a common sign gum line
caused by the discomfort of the inflamed gingiva
as a result of diastemata.
COMMON DENTAL ABNORMALITIES
CARIES (INFUNDIBULAR OR PERIPHERAL)

Caries is thought to be a condition caused by

the fermentation of the sugar within processed
feeds and forage. It could also be a result of
imbalances within the oral cavity which
prevents efficient mastication from occurring,
leading to a build up of stagnant feed matter to
accumulate around the teeth breaking the
structures of the tooth down through acid
erosion and decalcification .

Symptoms are not normally apparent until the

cavity has weakened the tooth to the point
where it results in secondary conditions such as
apical infections or fracturing of the teeth.
COMMON DENTAL ABNORMALITIES
ENAMEL POINTS AND ULCERATIONS

Enamel points can develop on the sides of

upper and lower cheek teeth. On the upper
jaw they affect the cheek side and on the
lower they affect the tongue side.

The greater the degree of undulation on the

outside of the tooth, the greater the points
are. With enamel points, extensive wounds
can result on the cheek lining and/or the
tongue.

Enamel points are easily prevented with

regular dental treatment which helps to
maintain the balance of the occlusal
surfaces and reduces the likelihood of sharp
enamel points developing
WITH THANKS TO…

Claire Johnson
Programme leader and year tutor for the BSc (Hons) Equine Dental science and FdSc Equine Dental
Studies (SW). Module leader for various equine dentistry modules across all years. Council member for
the British Association of Equine Dental Technicians. British Equine Veterinary Association/British
Veterinary Dental Association qualified Equine Dental Technician.

Celia Hadwin
Lecturer in Veterinary Nursing. Membership of Professional Bodies; RCVS (RVN), BVNA, IfL.

Kirsty Lesniak (nee McDonald)

Senior Lecturer (International Support). Programme Leader for the BSc (Hons) Equine Science and the
FdSc Equine Science. Module Leader for a range of modules across all three undergraduate levels.

Rebecca Sealy
Laboratory technician at Hartpury College.