3 Torsion

Seventh Edition
CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
3 Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf Torsion
David F. Mazurek
Lecture Notes:
Brock E. Barry
U.S. Military Academy
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Edition
Seventh
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek
Contents
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses Sample Problem 3.4
Axial Shear Components Design of Transmission Shafts
Shaft Deformations Stress Concentrations
Shearing Strain Plastic Deformations
Stresses in Elastic Range Elastoplastic Materials
Normal Stresses Residual Stresses
Torsional Failure Modes Concept Application 3.8/3.9
Sample Problem 3.1 Torsion of Noncircular Members
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts
Concept Application 3.10
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Edition
Seventh
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
• Stresses and strains in members of

circular cross-section are subjected
to twisting couples or torques
• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft
• Shaft transmits the torque to the

generator
• Generator creates an equal and

opposite torque T’
Fig. 3.2 (a) A generator provides power at a constant

revolution per minute to a turbine through shaft AB. (b)
Free body diagram of shaft AB along with the driving and
reaction torques on the generator and turbine,
respectively.
Edition
Seventh
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
Fig. 3.3 Shaft subject to torques and a
section plane at C. T    dF     dA
• Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the stresses
is not.
• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically

indeterminate – must consider shaft
deformations.
• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the

Fig. 3.24 (a)Free body diagram of section BC
with torque at C represented by the
representable contributions of small
distribution of shearing stresses due to torsional
elements of area carrying forces dF a radius loads cannot be assumed uniform.
 from the section center. (b) Free-body
diagram of section BC having all the small
area elements summed resulting in torque T.
Edition
Seventh
Axial Shear Components
• Torque applied to shaft produces shearing

stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.
Fig. 3.5 Small element in shaft showing how • Conditions of equilibrium require the
shear stress components act.
existence of equal stresses on the faces of the
two planes containing the axis of the shaft.
• The existence of the axial shear components is

demonstrated by considering a shaft made up
of slats pinned at both ends to disks.
• The slats slide with respect to each other

when equal and opposite torques are applied
to the ends of the shaft.
Fig. 3.6 Model of shearing in shaft (a)
undeformed; (b) loaded and deformed.
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Seventh
Shaft Deformations
• From observation, the angle of twist of the

shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.
 T
L
Fig. 3.7 Shaft with fixed support and line
AB drawn showing deformation under • When subjected to torsion, every cross-section
torsion loading: (a) unloaded; (b) loaded. of a circular shaft remains plane and
undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion.
Fig. 3.8 Comparison of deformations in
circular (a) and square (b) shafts.
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Seventh
Shearing Strain
• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.
• Since the ends of the element remain planar,

the shear strain is equal to angle of twist.
• It follows that

L   or  
L
• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

c 
 max  and    max
L c
Fig. 3.13 Shearing Strain Kinematic definitions
for torsion deformation. (a) The angle of twist 
(b) Undeformed portion of shaft of radius 
with (c) Deformed portion of the shaft having
same angle of twist,  and strain, angles of
twist per unit length, .
Edition
Seventh
Stresses in Elastic Range

• Multiplying the previous equation by the
shear modulus,

G  G max
c
From Hooke’s Law,   G , so

  max
c
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
distance  from the axis of the shaft.
• Recall that the sum of the moments of the
elementary forces exerted on any cross
section of the shaft must be equal to the
magnitude T of the torque:
 max 2  max
T    dA    dA  J
c c
• The results are known as the elastic torsion
Fig. 3.14 Distribution of shearing stresses
in a torqued shaft; (a) Solid shaft, (b) formulas,
hollow shaft. Tc T
 max  and  
J J
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Seventh
Normal Stresses
• Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular
to the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses
only. Normal stresses, shearing stresses or a
Fig. 3.17 Circular shaft with stress elements at
combination of both may be found for other
different orientations. orientations.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
F  2 max A0 cos 45   max A0 2
F  max A0 2
 45o     max
A A0 2
Fig. 3.18 Forces on faces at 45° to shaft axis.
• Element a is in pure shear.
• Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
two faces and compressive stress on the other
two.
• Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
Fig. 3.19 Shaft elements with only shear the same magnitude.
stresses or normal stresses.
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Edition
Seventh
Torsional Failure Modes
Photo 3.2 Shear failure of shaft subject to torque.
• Ductile materials generally fail in shear. Brittle materials are weaker in

tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a ductile specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane perpendicular to the shaft axis.
• When subjected to torsion, a brittle specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in which tension is a maximum, i.e., along
surfaces at 45o to the shaft axis.
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3 - 10

Edition
Seventh
Sample Problem 3.1

SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB
and BC and perform static
equilibrium analyses to find
torque loadings.
• Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
stress on shaft BC.
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm, • Given allowable shearing stress
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid and applied torque, invert the
and of diameter d. For the loading shown, elastic torsion formula to find the
determine (a) the minimum and maximum required diameter.
shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the
required diameter d of shafts AB and CD
if the allowable shearing stress in these
shafts is 65 MPa.
Edition
Seventh
Sample Problem 3.1

SOLUTION:
• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC
and perform static equilibrium analysis
to find torque loadings.
Fig. 1 Free-body diagram for section between A and B. Fig. 2 Free-body diagram for section between B and C.
 M x  0  6 kN  m   TAB  M x  0  6 kN  m   14 kN  m   TBC

TAB  6 kN  m  TCD TBC  20 kN  m

Edition
Seventh
Sample Problem 3.1

• Apply elastic torsion formulas to • Given allowable shearing stress and
find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic torsion
stress on shaft BC. formula to find the required diameter.
Fig. 3 Shearing stress distribution on cross section. Fig. 4 Free-body diagram of shaft portion AB.
c24  c14   0.060 4  0.045 4 

 
J 
2 2 Tc Tc 6 kN  m
 max   65 MPa 
 13.92 10  6 m 4 J  c4  c3
2 2
TBC c2 20 kN  m 0.060 m 
 max   2   c  38.9 10 3 m
J 13.92 10 6 m 4
d  2c  77.8 mm
 86.2 MPa
 min c1  min 45 mm
 
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm  max  86.2 MPa
 min  64.7 MPa  min  64.7 MPa
Edition
Seventh
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

• Recall that the angle of twist and maximum
shearing strain are related,
c
 max 
L
• In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hooke’s Law,
 max Tc
Fig. 3.20 Torque applied to fixed end shaft
 max  
G JG
resulting angle of twist .
• Equating the expressions for shearing strain and
solving for the angle of twist,
TL

JG
• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations
Ti Li
Fig. 3.21 Shaft with multiple cross-section  
dimensions and multiple loads. i J i Gi

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Statically Indeterminate Shafts

• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque reactions
at A and B.
• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,
TA  TB  90 lb  ft
which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

The problem is statically indeterminate.
• Divide the shaft into two components which
must have compatible deformations,
TA L1 TB L2 LJ
  1  2   0 TB  1 2 TA
J1G J 2G L2 J1
• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

LJ
Fig. 3.25 (a) Shaft with central applied torque
TA  1 2 TA  90 lb  ft
L2 J1
and fixed ends. (b) free-body diagram of shaft
AB. (c) Free-body diagrams for solid and
hollow segments.

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Seventh
Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between TCD and T0 .
• Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the angular rotations of the gears.
• Find the maximum allowable torque
Two solid steel shafts are connected on each shaft – choose the smallest.
by gears. Knowing that for each shaft
• Find the corresponding angle of twist
G = 11.2 x 106 psi and that the
for each shaft and the net angular
allowable shearing stress is 8 ksi,
rotation of end A.
determine (a) the largest torque T0
that may be applied to the end of shaft
AB, (b) the corresponding angle
through which end A of shaft AB
rotates.
Edition
Seventh
Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on • Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the two shafts to find a relationship the angular rotations of the gears.
between TCD and T0 .
Fig. 2 Angles of twist for gears B and C.

Fig. 1 Free-body diagrams of gears B and C.
rB B  rCC
 M B  0  F 0.875 in.  T0 rC 2.45 in.
B  C  C
 M C  0  F 2.45 in.  TCD rB 0.875 in.
TCD  2.8 T0  B  2.8C

Edition
Seventh
Sample Problem 3.4

• Find the T0 for the maximum • Find the corresponding angle of twist for each
allowable torque on each shaft – shaft and the net angular rotation of end A.
choose the smallest.
Fig. 5
Fig. 3 Free-body
diagram of shaft
AB.
A/ B 
TAB L

561lb  in.24 in.
Fig. 4 Free-body
diagram of shaft
CD.

J AB G  0.375 in.4 11.2  106 psi
2

 0.387 rad  2.22o
T 0.375 in.
2.8 561lb  in.24 in .
TAB c
 max  8000 psi  0 T L
C / D  CD 
 
J AB  0.375 in.4
2 J CDG  0.5 in.4 11.2  106 psi
2
T0  663 lb  in.
 0.514 rad  2.95o
2.8 T0 0.5 in.
 max 
TCDc
J CD
8000 psi 
 0.5 in.4 
 B  2.8C  2.8 2.95o  8.26o
2
 A   B   A / B  8.26o  2.22o
T0  561 lb  in. T0  561 lb  in  A  10.48o
Edition
Seventh
Design of Transmission Shafts
• Principal transmission shaft • Determine torque applied to shaft at

performance specifications are: specified power and speed,
- power P  T  2fT
- Speed of rotation P P
T 
 2f
• Designer must select shaft
material and dimensions of the • Find shaft cross-section which will not
cross-section to meet exceed the maximum allowable
performance specifications shearing stress,
without exceeding allowable  max 
Tc
shearing stress. J
J  3 T
 c  solid shafts
c 2  max
J

 4 4
c2 2c2

c2  c1 
T

 max
hollow shafts

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Seventh
Stress Concentrations
• The derivation of the torsion formula,
Fig. 3.26 Coupling of Tc
shafts using (a) bolted
 max 
J
flange, (b) slot for
keyway. assumed a circular shaft with uniform
cross-section loaded through rigid end
plates.
• The use of flange couplings, gears and
pulleys attached to shafts by keys in
keyways, and cross-section discontinuities
can cause stress concentrations
• Experimental or numerically determined
concentration factors are applied as
Tc
 max  K
J
Fig. 3.28 Plot of stress concentration factors
for fillets in circular shafts.

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Seventh
Plastic Deformations
• With the assumption of a linearly elastic material,
Tc
 max 
J
• If the yield strength is exceeded or the material
Fig. 3.29 Distribution of shearing involved is a brittle materials with a nonlinear
strain for torsion of a circular shaft.
shearing-stress-strain curve, these relationships
cease to be valid.
• Shearing strain varies linearly regardless of material
properties. Application of shearing-stress-strain
Fig. 3.30 Nonlinear, shear stress- curve allows determination of stress distribution.
strain diagram.
• The integral of the moments from the internal stress
distribution is equal to the torque on the shaft at the
section,
c c
T    2 d   2   2 d
0 0
Fig. 3.31 Shearing strain distribution for
shaft with nonlinear stress-strain response.
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Seventh
Elastoplastic Materials
• At the maximum elastic torque,
J L Y
TY   Y  12 c3 Y Y 
c c
• As the torque is increased, a plastic region


(    Y ) develops around an elastic core (   Y )
Y
L Y
Y 


2 c3 1  1 Y
3  4  1 Y3 
T Y
  TY 1  
3 4 3  3  4 3 
 c   c 
 3
4 T 1  1 Y 
T 3 Y 4 3
  
• As Y  0, the torque approaches a limiting value,

TP  43 TY  plastic torque
Fig. 3.34 Stress-strain distribution for
elastic-perfectly plastic shaft at different
stages of loading: (a) elastic, (b) • Valid only for a solid circular shaft made of an
impending yield, (c) partially yielded, and
(d) fully yielded. elastoplastic material.
Edition
Seventh
Residual Stresses
• Plastic region develops in a shaft when subjected to a
large enough torque.
• When the torque is removed, the reduction of stress
and strain at each point takes place along a straight line
to a generally non-zero residual stress.
• On a T- curve, the shaft unloads along a straight line
Fig. 3.37 Shear stress-strain response
for loading past yield reversing until
to an angle greater than zero.
compressive yield occurs.
• Residual stresses found from principle of superposition
Tc
 
m    dA  0
J
Fig. 3.38 Torque-angle of twist

response for loading past yield, followed
by unloading. Fig. 3.39 Superposition of elastic-plastic state (a) plus linear elastic
unloading (b) equals residual (c) sharing stress distributions.

Edition
Seventh
Concept Application 3.8/3.9

SOLUTION:
• Solve Eq. (3.29) for Y/c and evaluate
the elastic core radius
Fig. 3.36 Loaded circular shaft. • Solve Eq. (3.15) for the angle of twist
A solid circular shaft is subjected to a • Evaluate Eq. (3.16) for the angle
torque T  4.6 kN  m at each end. which the shaft untwists when the
Assuming that the shaft is made of an torque is removed. The permanent
elastoplastic material with  Y  150 MPa twist is the difference between the
and G  77 GPa determine (a) the angles of twist and untwist
radius of the elastic core, (b) the
• Find the residual stress distribution by
angle of twist of the shaft. When the
a superposition of the stress due to
torque is removed, determine (c) the
twisting and untwisting the shaft
permanent twist, (d) the distribution
of residual stresses.

Edition
Seventh

SOLUTION:
• Solve Eq. (3.15) for the angle of twist
• Solve Eq. (3.29) for Y/c and
evaluate the elastic core radius
 Y Y
1   

4 T 1  1 Y3  Y  T  3
Y c Y c
T    4  3 
3 Y

4
c 
3 c  TY 
Y 
TY L

 
3.68  103 N  m 1.2 m 

J  12 c 4  12  25 10 3 m  JG  
614  10-9 m 4 77  10 Pa 
 614 10 9
m 4 Y  93.4  103 rad
 J 93.4  103 rad

Y 
TY c
 TY  Y   148.3  103 rad  8.50o
J c 0.630
TY 

150 106 Pa 614 10 9 m 4    8.50o
25 10 3 m
 3.68 kN  m
1
Y  4.6  3
 4 3   0.630
c  3.68 
Y  15.8 mm
Edition
Seventh

• Evaluate Eq. (3.15) for the angle • Find the residual stress distribution by
which the shaft untwists when a superposition of the stress due to
the torque is removed. The twisting and untwisting the shaft
permanent twist is the difference
between the angles of twist and  max
 
Tc

 
4.6 103 N  m 25 10 3 m 
J 614 10-9 m 4
untwist
 187.3 MPa
TL
 
JG

4.6  103 N  m 1.2 m 
6.14  109 m4 77  109 Pa 
 116.8  103 rad  6.69
φp     
 8.50  6.69
 1.81o
 p  1.81o
Fig. 3.40 Superposition of stress distributions to obtain residual stresses.
Edition
Seventh
Torsion of Noncircular Members

• Previous torsion formulas are valid for
axisymmetric or circular shafts
Fig. 3.41 Twisting of shaft with square cross section.
• Planar cross-sections of noncircular
shafts do not remain planar and stress
and strain distribution do not vary
linearly
• For uniform rectangular cross-sections,

Fig. 3.44 Shaft with rectangular cross section, showing T TL
the location of maximum shearing stress.  max  
c1ab2 c2 ab3G
• At large values of a/b, the maximum

shear stress and angle of twist for other
open sections are the same as a
rectangular bar.

Edition
Seventh
Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts

• Summing forces in the x-direction on AB,
Fig. 3.47 Thin-
 Fx  0   A t Ax    B t B x 
walled hollow shaft  At A  Bt B   t  q  shear flow
subject to torsional
loading.
shear stress varies inversely with thickness
Fig. 3.48 Segment

of thin-walled • Compute the shaft torque from the integral
hollow shaft. of the moments due to shear stress
dM 0  p dF  p t ds   q pds   2q dA
T   dM 0   2q dA  2qA
Fig. 3.51 Shear flow in
T
the member wall. 
2tA
• Angle of twist (from Chapter 11)

TL ds
Fig. 3.53 Area for  
shear flow. 4 A2G t

Edition
Seventh

Structural aluminum tubing with a rectangular
cross-section has a torque loading of 24 kip-
in. Determine the shearing stress in each of
the four walls with (a) uniform wall thickness
of 0.160 in. and wall thicknesses of (b) 0.120
in. on AB and CD and 0.200 in. on CD and
BD.
SOLUTION:
• Determine the shear flow through the
tubing walls.
• Find the corresponding shearing stress
with each wall thickness .
Fig. 3.54 Square thin-walled aluminum tubing

having: (a) uniform thickness, (b) non-uniform
thickness, (c) median area line (next slide)

Edition
Seventh

SOLUTION: • Find the corresponding shearing
stress with each wall thickness.
• Determine the shear flow through the
tubing walls.
With a uniform wall thickness,
T 24kip  in.
  2
 8.35ksi
2tA 2(0.160 in.)(8.986 in. )
  8.35 ksi
With a variable wall thickness
1.335 kip in.
 AB   AC 
A  3.84 in. 2.34 in.   8.986 in. 2 0.120 in.
 AB   BC  11.13 ksi
1.335 kip in.
 BD   CD 
0.200 in.
 BC   CD  6.68 ksi

3 Torsion

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Seventh Edition

Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

• Stresses and strains in members of

• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft

• Shaft transmits the torque to the

• Generator creates an equal and

Fig. 3.2 (a) A generator provides power at a constant

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

• Although the net torque due to the shearing

• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically

• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the

Axial Shear Components

• Torque applied to shaft produces shearing

• The existence of the axial shear components is

• The slats slide with respect to each other

• From observation, the angle of twist of the

• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

• Since the ends of the element remain planar,

• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

Stresses in Elastic Range

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Torsional Failure Modes

Photo 3.2 Shear failure of shaft subject to torque.

• Ductile materials generally fail in shear. Brittle materials are weaker in

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Sample Problem 3.1

Sample Problem 3.1

 M x  0  6 kN  m   TAB  M x  0  6 kN  m   14 kN  m   TBC

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Sample Problem 3.1

c24  c14   0.060 4  0.045 4 

Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

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Statically Indeterminate Shafts

which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

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Sample Problem 3.4

Sample Problem 3.4

Fig. 2 Angles of twist for gears B and C.

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Sample Problem 3.4

Design of Transmission Shafts

• Principal transmission shaft • Determine torque applied to shaft at

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• As the torque is increased, a plastic region

• As Y  0, the torque approaches a limiting value,

Fig. 3.38 Torque-angle of twist

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Concept Application 3.8/3.9

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Concept Application 3.8/3.9

 J 93.4  103 rad

Concept Application 3.8/3.9

Torsion of Noncircular Members

• For uniform rectangular cross-sections,

• At large values of a/b, the maximum

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Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts