Research Methods Note

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Preamble
In developing and implementing plans and
strategies, managers and policy makers need
valid and reliable information. The degree
of validity and reliability of information
generated and used depend on factors such
as:
– the source of information
– the method of gathering the information
– the method analysing the information
– the method of reporting the information
Therefore, we need a systematic and objective
investigation. This form the basis for the
definition of “Research”.
“The systematic and objective process of
gathering, recording and analyzing of data and
information related to .......
....problem statements, research objectives and
research questions/hypotheses
Postgraduate Research Objectives:
To learn:
Spesific Postgraduate Doctoral
Research Objective
Scientific Method
• The analysis and interpretation of empirical
evidence (facts from observation or
experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior
conceptions.
Research Types
Basic Research
Applied Research
Basic Research
– Is that intended to expand the limits or
body of knowledge. It does not involve
the provision of immediate solution to a
particular present problem.
– However, it might be useful in provision to
a particular present problem that might
arise in the future.
Applied Research
– It is carried out for the purpose of
solving a particular real-life problem or
for guiding a specific decision about a
particular course of action or policy.
Phd; Industrial Phd
and DBA Research
Phd; Industrial Phd and DBA
Research
Issues :
 Applied vs. Basic Research
 Contribution to Knowledge
 Scientific Method
Contribution to Knowledge
1. 1. Development of New Theory
2. 2.To Expand the Current Theory

 To add new variables to the theory
 To confirm or clarify an existing theory - for a
new context or disconfirm some aspect of the
theory.
 To clarify contradictory findings
3. To Modify or Improve on the Research Methodology
1. 4. To Provide Empirical Evidences on Anecdotal ‘Facts’
The process must be “scientific”

*We can only do this if we are familiar with the literature related to the theory
SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY
OF KNOWLEDGE
Source of Knowledge
1. Agreement
Somebody told it to you and you believed what you
were told. It can be direct from the person
concerned or indirectly from one person to another
(tradition) or from secondary source such as
newspaper and T.V (authority).
Example:
You’re read in the newspaper that traffic jam in
Kuala Lumpur is terrible, it creates unnecessary
stress: … (and you agree with report)
2. Experiential
Some of the knowledge that you possesses were
the result of personal experience and discovery.
Example:
Your personal experience shows that whenever
you are under stress the quality and productivity of
your work is adversely affected.
3. Deductive Reasoning/ Logic
Knowledge discovered through the process of
deducing a general statement to a specific
assertion.
Example:
From the following two general statements:
• Traffic Jam in Kuala Lumpur creates stress
• Stress adversely affecting quality and
productivity
We can deduce that
• Traffic jam adversely affecting quality and
productivity
4. Inductive Reasoning/ Logic
Knowledge discovered through the process of
establishing a general proposition on the basis of
observation of particular facts.
The four sources of knowledge might not be valid
and reliable. This might be due to a number of
issues related to errors in personal human inquiry.
There are:
a) Inaccurate Observation
b) Overgeneralization and Made-up Information
c) Selective observation
d) Illogical Reasoning
e) Ego- Involvement in Understanding
f) The Premature closure of Inquiry
To overcome the danger posed by the usage of the
four sources of information, researchers are
advice to go for Scientific Research Method in
discovering knowledge.
Scientific Approach in Research
“Scientific research is an approach that is:
 structured and systematic
 empirical – proven by data and facts
To understand better the scientific approach in

research, it is better if we understand:
• Basic assumptions in science
• The purpose of science
Basic Assumptions in Science
Scientific approach is based on two (2) key
assumptions:
- Nature operates orderly
Things/incidents occur in systematic and orderly
manner - not random or chaotic.
Human behaviours have certain patterns that
can be detected and explained.
- Any incident has its reasons ("determinism“)

An incident operates within the cause and
effects principles – the existence of
causes or reasons that can be detected.
Purpose of Science
In general, knowledge can be expanded thru 3
purpose of science.
- Description
- Explanation
- Prediction
Description
• The purpose of the description is to illustrate and
provide evidence of an incident
correctly. To determine whether an event
or phenomenon has occurred or exists and, if they
exist, make sure to what extent the existence
of the place.
• Tries to discover answers to the questions of who,
what, when, where, and sometimes how.
• Researcher attempts to describe or define a subject,
by creating a profile of a group of problems, people,
or events.
• May or may not have the potential of drawing
powerful inferences.
• Does not answer the question why.
Explanation
• An enquiry is deemed to have completed when the
causes that lead to the events were determined. In
other words, to explain an
event, scientific research will ensure the connection
between cause and effect of the incidence.
If the enquiry of the incident had a
different explanation or there is a contradiction in
the answers, then there is still some doubt or
ignorance regarding the facts/knowledge about the
incidence and thus it should be further explored.
• In many cases, explanations are not
"absolute". Researchers might
need additional evidence and this will lead to further
research on the issues.
• In short, Explanation, goes beyond Description by
attempting to explain the reasons for a phenomenon
that the descriptive study only observed.
• Researcher uses theories or at least hypotheses to
account for the forces that cause a certain
phenomenon to occur.
Prediction
• An explanation is said to be adequate if it enable the
researcher to make predictions about the incident in
the study
• Having able to explain a phenomena - the ultimate
goal of a researcher is to be able to predict the
occurrence of the phenomena
Conclusion
• Knowledge* gained from research in the form of a
scientific approach is different from other
approaches. All beliefs, or assumptions must
be tested-not just by one researcher but also by
other researchers, not just once but several times in
various places by as many other researchers.
** Unless it is in the form of REVEALED KNOWLEDGE

from God
The scientific method is a means whereby
insight into undiscovered truth is sought by:
1. Identifying the problem that defines the goal of the

quest.
2. Positing a hypothesis both as logical means of
locating the data and as an aid to resolving the
problem.
3. Gathering data with the hope of resolving the
problem.
4. Empirical testing the hypothesis by processing and
interpreting the data to see if the interpretation of
them will resolve the question that initiated the
research.
Characteristics of Scientific Research.
Purposiveness
Rigor
Testability
Replacability
Precision and confidence
Objectivity
“Generalizability”
Simplicity / Economy / Parsimony Research
Plan and Strategies.
Epistemology and Methodology of
Research
General objective of research
1. To discover new knowledge.
2. To organize and systematize existing body of
knowledge.
3. To challenge existing paradigms and establish
new theories.
In conducting scientific research method, we need
sound knowledge and skill on:
Epistemology of research
Methodology of research
Epistemology of (Science of Finding
research (Science of Methodology of
Knowing) Research Out)
Sound knowledge of You know where to
subject matter of one’s start and what to find.
discipline Well equipped with
Sound knowledge of research tools:-
neighbouring Empirical
disciplines. Qualitative
Having a good
scientific mind.
What data are
required to answer
Questions/ / Test
the Hypotheses?
Literature Theory & Other

Studies
Answer
Research Problem Research Data Res Ques
Hypotheses Design Data
Area Statement questions Analysis &/Test
Collection
hypotheses
Context
Pre-empirical
stage Empirical stage
Simplified model of
research process
PROBLEM STATEMENT
/RESEARCH PROBLEM
Research Problem/Statement.
The research problem: the heart of the research
project.
The research problem is the axial centre around which
the whole research effort turns.
At the very heart of every research project is the

research problem. For high level academic research
esp. at Phd level, the research problem addresses the
significant issues related to the gap/s in the existing
knowledge – which the outcome will lead to significant
managerial and theoretical and contributions. This,
eventually will help to improve the well being of
‘Individuals – employees; managers; CEOs’;
Organizations; Industry; and Country”
The Process of Defining Research
Problems.
1. Ascertain the main objective of the inquiry.
Ask yourself “At the end of the research
what do I want?’ Have a system view of the
whole situation and then focus on the
result. Then confirm whether the inquiry is
related to your
Expertise
Interest
Career demand
2. Understand the background of the problem with
the purpose of ascertaining the THEORITICAL and
MANAGERIAL CONTRIBUTION of the research to
be undertaken. Situational analysis needs to be
carried out in obtaining a clear understanding of
the research problem. This involves the process of
critical information gathering. This can be done
through:
Literature Review ...refer to general framework dev. by
Md Akhir
Interview with experts… Focus Group
Exploratory Studies
Discussion with decision makers
Reflecting on the current and/or previous experiences in
handling related issues/projects ...
RELATIONS BETWEEN QUALITY
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES,
SUSTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT AND
OPERATION PERFORMANCE
By:
Mohd Akhir Hj Ahmad
(93114)
Supervisors:
Prof. Dr. Rushami Zien B. Yusoff
Customer
Relations
FRAME WORK
Wilson et al (2003) Samson and Terziovski (1999) Chang and Lo (2005)
Heras et al (2002) Easton and Jarrel (1998) Sun (1999)
Design Process Production
Acharya and Ray (2000) Hendriks and Singhal (1997) Yeung et al (2003)
Performance
Aarts (2001) Poksinska et al (2002)
Quality Walgenbach (2001). Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002)
Process Business
Management Finance
Approach Performance Corbett et al (2005)
Practices. Performance Han et al (2007)
Human Customer Ahire et al (1996)

Development Kleindorfer et.al (2005) Woodruff, (1997)
E. Jones et al, (2000)
Satisfaction
Supplier Sustainable Sustainability

Relations Product Performance
Developmen
t (ISO 20121)
(Flynn et,al., 1995)
Context of
Leadership
Organization
The main challenge for the Malaysia’s
automobile industry is the competition from Operation One important deficit found is the lack of
Support
the Thailand’s automobile industry in the Guidance on how the concepts are to be
areas of production, sales, technology and Improvemen Applied among all actors involved. This
product standards. Furthermore, in global Performance does not ask for more checklist, which can
t
market, Thailand ranks as the 15th largest Evaluation be quickly applied, but for in-depth insights
vehicle manufacturer in the world (Michael on how companies interact to joint reduce
Planning
Shain & David Edmonds,2004). environmental burdens. (Suering, 2004).
When an organization’s board does not truly understand and support

the kind of complex organizational change involved in TBL
A system comprises written information in the form of sustainability, there is a risk that top management will be replaced with
instructions and procedures in order to direct and new leaders who are given new directions by the board. (Smith &
control some form of operation (Poksinska et al, 2010). Sharicz, 2011).
Sustainable Product
Development
Analysis of Literature Related

Sustainable Product Development
Optimize Environmental Optimize Social
The organizations are force to be under the
Impacts Impacts
condition of both the ecological
regulation and customer benefit. If one of
Optimize Economic
them are not fully satisfied the organization, Optimize Functionality
aspects
it could face to difficulty to continue Organizational
business (Yasuda and Ishioka, 2009) Performance
Maxwell & Vorst, 2003
Yet the relationship between Emphasize software
environmental and societal based to transform Product
factors on the one hand and NPD Enhance Improvement,
quality management on the Business
other hand is much less Tech road mapping Miles & Munilla, 1993; Porter Competitiveness Productivity
researched (Lagrosen, 2004). Information & van der Linde, 1995
Technology
Supply chain Competitive
management Petrick, & Echols, 2003 Fierman, 1991 Increase Sales Advantages
Product Life Cycle Nasr, & Thurston, 2006 Improved

strategy Sustainable Financial
Frankel, 1992 Customer Performance
Product
Design for re mfg Product re-manufacturing Development Feedback
Cost Reduction
Life Cycle Assessment Dean et,al, 1995 Closeness to
Byggeth, & Hochschorner, 2006 Customer Customer
Hendrik Ny, 2006 Satisfaction
Evaluating Environmental Charter, 1998
Engleberg, 1992;
impact Kolk, 2000
Eco Design Tools Stakeholder Orientation Improve
Corporate Image QM
Customer
Eco design check list
Employee
Comparing tools ABC analysis Supplier Quality Top Mgmt Training
Environmental Responsible Suppliers

Process Product / Service
matrix Role of Quality Dept
Share Improvement Design
Holders
LIDs wheel Quality Data/report Employee Relation Culture
Society
(Maxwell & Vorst, 2003)
Optimize
Functionality
Optimize Sustainable
Environmental
Impacts
Product
Developmen
Optimize t
Social
Impacts
Optimize
Economic
aspects
(Charter, 1998).
Customer
Employee
Sustainable
Stakeholder Product
Orientation Developmen
Suppliers
t
Share Holders
Society
(Byggeth, & Hochschorner, 2006).
Eco design check
list
ABC analysis
Sustainable
Eco Design Product
Environmental Tools Developmen
Responsible matrix t
LIDs wheel
Comparing tools
(Hendrik Ny, 2006).
Evaluating
Environmental
impact Sustainable
Life Cycle Product
Assessment Developmen
t
(Petrick, & Echols, 2003)
Tech road
mapping
Information Sustainable
Technology Product
Developmen
Supply chain t
management
Emphasize
software based
to transform
NPD
(Pujari, Wright,& Peattie, 2003)
Enhance
Competitiveness
Miles & Munilla, 1993; Porter
New Product & van der Linde, 1995
Developmen
Sustainable Fierman, 1991 Increase Sales
t
Product
Developmen Frankel, 1992 Improved
t Customer
Feedback
Dean et,al, 1995
Environmental
Closeness to
issues Customer
Engleberg, 1992;
Kolk, 2000
Improve
Corporate Image
(Nasr, & Thurston, 2006).
Product Life Cycle

strategy Sustainable
Product re-
Product
manufacturin
Developmen
Design for re mfg g
t
Impacts Impacts
New Product
Development
Optimize Economic
Optimize Functionality
aspects
Environmental
Maxwell & Vorst, 2003 issues
Pujari et.al, 2003
Emphasize software
based to transform
NPD Enhance
Tech road mapping Miles & Munilla, 1993; Porter Competitiveness
Information & van der Linde, 1995
Technology
Supply chain
management Petrick, & Echols, 2003 Fierman, 1991 Increase Sales

strategy Sustainable Frankel, 1992 Customer
Product

Byggeth, & Hochschorner, 2006 Customer
Hendrik Ny, 2006
Engleberg, 1992;
impact Kolk, 2000
Corporate Image
Customer
Employee
Comparing tools ABC analysis

matrix
Share
Holders
LIDs wheel
Society
Saraph et al (1989)
Top Mgmt
Organizational
Role of Quality
Saraph et al (1989) Performance
Dept Samson and Terziovski (1999)
Easton and Jarrel (1998)
Saraph et al (1989)
Hendriks and Singhal (1997)
Crosby (1996)
Deming (1986)
Training Feigenbaum (1991)
Ishikawa (1985) Product
Chang and Lo (2005)
Juran (1992) Sun (1999) Improvement,
Crosby (1996)
QM Yeung et al (2003)
Business
Deming (1986) Product / Poksinska et al (2002)
Culture
Feigenbaum (1991) Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002)
Productivity
Service Design
Ishikawa (1985)
Juran (1992) Saraph et al (1989)
Flynn et al (1995)
Cyert (1993)
Cost Reduction Supplier Quality Harber et al (1993)
Competitive
Saraph et al (1989) Hendricks and Triplett (1989)
Spitzer (1993)
Crosby (1996) Advantages
Deming (1986)
CustomerFeigenbaum (1991)
Ishikawa (1985)
Process Saraph et al (1989)
Corbett et al (2005)
Satisfaction
Juran (1992) Improvement Han et al (2007)
Financial
Employee Quality Saraph et al (1989)
Performance
Relation Data/report
Authors Future Research Gap
How existing method to an Need new challenges for

Hendrik Ny, 2006 integrated supporting product development-with
framework for sustainable growing awareness of
product development. sustainable issues.
Charter, 1998 Understanding sustainable Not aware sustainable
impact. issues at early stage and
there always ignore ethical
and social considerations.
Byggeth & Hochschorner, Suggest guidelines for Environmental is not high
2006 design of strategy toward priority and not primary
sustainable. economically driven.
Maxwell & van der Vorst, Building sustainable Sustainable development
2002 development at strategy only focus on operational
level will greater rather than strategy and
improvement. existing approach not
integrated.
Sustainable product development Need new challenges of sustainable
must have guidelines at design stage product is design at early stage with
according to organisation strategy and concern TBL issues and applied with
integrated. integrated strategy approach.
(Developed based on Gap/Future Research)
Sustainable
Product
Developmen
Design
t
sustainable Applied sustainable
product at early development as
strategy approach.
stage (Charter,
(Maxwell & Vorst,
1998) 2002)
Adopt TBL issues for Need new

Sustainable
sustainable challenges of
development should
development and sustainable product
be integrated (Maxwell
guidelines (Byggeth & development.(Ny,
& Vorst, 2002)
Hochschorner, 2006 2006)
Sustainable
Product FRAME WORK
Developmen
t
One important deficit found is the lack of
(ISO 20121) guidance on how the concepts are to be
4.2 Needs and requirement applied among all actors involved. This
Design sustainable 4.3 Identification and engagement of interested parties does not ask for more checklist, which
product at early stage Context of 4.4 Determining the scope of the management system. can be quickly applied, but for in-depth
(Charter, 1998) Organization 4.5 Event sustainability management system insights on how companies interact to
4.6 Sustainable development principles statement of joint reduce environmental burdens.
purpose and (Suering, 2004).
Adopt TBL issues for 5.2 Management commitment
sustainable Leadership 5.3 Policy When an organization’s board does not truly
5.4 Organizational roles, responsibilities and authorities understand and support the kind of complex
development and
organizational change involved in TBL
guidelines(Byggeth & sustainability, there is a risk that top
Hochschorner, 2006 6.1 Action to address risks and opportunities
management will be replaced with new
Planning 6.2 Event sustainability objective and plans to achieve
them.
leaders who are given new directions by the
Sustainable board. (Smith & Sharicz, 2011).
7.1 Resources
development should 7.2 Competence
be integrated (Maxwell Support 7.3 Awareness A system comprises written information in
& Vorst, 2002) 7.4 Communication the form of instructions and procedures in
7.5 Documented information order to direct and control some form of
8.1 Operational planning and control operation (Poksinska et al, 2010).
New Challenges of Operation 8.2 Dealing with modified activities, products or services
sustainable product 8.3 Supply chain management
development.(Ny,
9.1 Performance against governing principles of sustainable development
2006) Performance 9.2 Monitoring and measurement
Evaluation 9.3 Internal audit
Applied sustainable 9.4 Management review
development as
10.1 Nonconforming and corrective action.
strategy or system
Improvement 10.2 Continual improvement.
approach. (Maxwell & 10.3 Evaluating compliance.
Vorst, 2002)
The organizations are force to be under the Samson and Terziovski (1999)Organizational
Impacts Impacts
condition of both the ecological Easton and Jarrel (1998) Performance
regulation and customer benefit. If one of Hendriks and Singhal (1997)
Optimize Economic
them are not fully satisfied the organization, Optimize Functionality Chang and Lo (2005)
aspects Product
it could face to difficulty to continue Sun (1999) Improvement,
business (Yasuda and Ishioka, 2009) Yeung et al (2003) Business
Poksinska et al (2002) Productivity
Yet the relationship between Emphasize software Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002)
environmental and societal factors based to transform
on the one hand and quality NPD Enhance Competitive
management on the other hand is Advantages
much less researched (Lagrosen,
Tech road mapping Miles & Munilla, 1993; Porter Competitiveness
2004). Information & van der Linde, 1995
Technology Flynn et al (1995)
Supply chain Cyert (1993)
management Petrick, & Echols, 2003 Fierman, 1991 Increase Sales Harber et al (1993)
Hendricks and Triplett (1989)
Spitzer (1993)
Corbett et al (2005)
Product Life Cycle Nasr, & Thurston, 2006 Improved Han et al (2007)
Product
Cost Reduction
Engleberg, 1992;
impact Kolk, 2000
Corporate Image QM
Crosby (1996)
Customer Deming (1986)
Feigenbaum (1991)
Employee Ishikawa (1985)
Comparing tools ABC analysis Juran (1992) Top Mgmt
Supplier Quality Training

Holders
Society
The organizations are force to be under the
Impacts Impacts
condition of both the ecological
regulation and customer benefit. If one of
Optimize Economic
them are not fully satisfied the organization, Optimize Functionality
aspects
it could face to difficulty to continue Organizational
business (Yasuda and Ishioka, 2009) Performance
Yet the relationship between Emphasize software
environmental and societal based to transform Product
factors on the one hand and NPD Enhance Improvement,
quality management on the Business
other hand is much less Tech road mapping Miles & Munilla, 1993; Porter Competitiveness Productivity
researched (Lagrosen, 2004). Information & van der Linde, 1995
Technology
Supply chain Competitive
management Petrick, & Echols, 2003 Fierman, 1991 Increase Sales Advantages

Product
Cost Reduction
Engleberg, 1992;
impact Kolk, 2000
Corporate Image QM
Customer
Employee
Comparing tools ABC analysis Supplier Quality Top Mgmt Training

Holders
Society
Customer
Relations
FRAME WORK
Wilson et al (2003) Samson and Terziovski (1999) Chang and Lo (2005)
Heras et al (2002) Easton and Jarrel (1998) Sun (1999)
Design Process Production
Acharya and Ray (2000) Hendriks and Singhal (1997) Yeung et al (2003)
Performance
Aarts (2001) Poksinska et al (2002)
Quality Walgenbach (2001). Gotzamani and Tsiotras (2002)
Process Business
Management Finance
Approach Performance Corbett et al (2005)
Practices. Performance Han et al (2007)
Human Customer Ahire et al (1996)

Development Kleindorfer et.al (2005) Woodruff, (1997)
E. Jones et al, (2000)
Satisfaction
Supplier Sustainable Sustainability

Relations Product Performance
Developmen
t (ISO 20121)
(Flynn et,al., 1995)
Context of
Leadership
Organization
The main challenge for the Malaysia’s
automobile industry is the competition from Operation One important deficit found is the lack of
Support
the Thailand’s automobile industry in the Guidance on how the concepts are to be
areas of production, sales, technology and Improvemen Applied among all actors involved. This
product standards. Furthermore, in global Performance does not ask for more checklist, which can
t
market, Thailand ranks as the 15th largest Evaluation be quickly applied, but for in-depth insights
vehicle manufacturer in the world (Michael on how companies interact to joint reduce
Planning
Shain & David Edmonds,2004). environmental burdens. (Suering, 2004).
When an organization’s board does not truly understand and support

the kind of complex organizational change involved in TBL
A system comprises written information in the form of sustainability, there is a risk that top management will be replaced with
instructions and procedures in order to direct and new leaders who are given new directions by the board. (Smith &
control some form of operation (Poksinska et al, 2010). Sharicz, 2011).
3. Identify, differentiate and isolate the problem and
symptoms.*
Example: absenteeism vs. low motivation
One way of determining that the problem rather
than the symptom is being addressed is to ask the
question (after gathering information thru step 2)
“Is the factor I have identified - antecedent, the real
problem, or the consequence/outcome?”
The consequence in most cases is the symptom.
Inability of the researcher to differentiate the
problem and the symptom can results in
unnecessary wastage of the money and time.
* Very crucial for applied research

4. Determine the Unit of Analysis.
The unit of analysis refers to the level of
aggregation of the data during subsequent analysis.
Unit of analysis can be in the form of
Individual,
E.g. individual employees, CEO
Groups
E.g. employees from various departments
Organization
E.g. company
Industry
E.g. Electronic, manufacturing industry.
Countries
5. Determine the Relevant Variables.
A variable is anything that varies or changes in
value.
The value can differ from the time to time and from
subject/person.
Example of Variable in Quality and Productivity
Research.
Level of service quality
Level of productivity
Degree of effectiveness
Degree of efficiencies
Level of job satisfaction
Degree of competitiveness
For causal research, variable can be classification:
a) Dependent (Criterion) Variable
Is the variable of primary interest to the
researcher. It variable that is to be predicted or
explained.
b) Independent (Predictor) Variable.
Is a variable that is expected to influence the
dependent variable.
c) Moderating Variable
The moderating variable is one that has a
strong contingent effect on the independent –
dependent variable relationship that is the
presence of a moderator variable will modify the
originally expected relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
d) Intervening Variable
An intervening variable is the variable that
surfaces as the effect of the relationship
between independent variable and the
dependent variable over a period of time.
6. Confirm whether the researcher problem is
something researchable, worthy, suitable and
ethical.
Researchability refers to:
Whether the research problem is something concrete
and ‘true’ (exists in the real world).
Whether you can collect the data.
Whether you can analyse the data.
Worthy refers to:
Whether there is a ‘felt needs and whether it can help
solve things.
Whether is has any benefit – example, to the
researcher sponsor, and mankind.
Theoretical Significance
Contribution to the body of knowledge
Ethical
The research problems to be undertaken must be
not something that is unethical. Whether to
sponsoring organization, researcher, respondent
or any other party that is directly and indirectly
related and implicated by the research
7. State the problem statement and theoretical

framework/ research model; research questions/
hypotheses and; research objectives.
SERVICE RECOVERY STRATEGIES AND CUSTOMER
RETENTION IN RETAIL BANKING INDUSTRY IN
MALAYSIA
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the problem statements, the research questions are:
1.Do the customers perception on service recovery strategies
(represented by firm oriented, customer oriented, employee
oriented, atonement oriented and justice oriented strategies)
differ with each other towards customer retention?
2.What are service recovery strategies (represented by firm

oriented, customer oriented, employee oriented, atonement
oriented, and justice oriented strategies) that correlate with
customer retention?
3.How much of service recovery strategies (represented by
firm oriented, customer oriented, employee oriented,
atonement oriented, and justice oriented justice) influence
the customer retention?
Firm oriented
Recovery
Customer oriented
recovery
Employee oriented Customer

recovery
Retention
Atonement oriented
recovery
Justice oriented
recovery
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review
Review of related literature.
A systematic method for identifying, locating,
evaluating and interpreting the related work
produced (related to the problem statement and
objective of the study) by researchers, scholars
and practitioners
Process
Literature Search – Identifying and Locating.
Literature Review – Analysis.
Why review the literature?
Without it you will not acquire:
• an understanding of your topic, of
what has already been done on it
• how it has been researched,
• what the key issues are .....gaps in
knowledge and practices..
• An overall framework
for where your piece of
work will fits in the “big
picture” of what is
known about a topic
from previous
research
• The review itself is the final piece of the
puzzle, it is a matter of tying together all
the previous research that you have found
and reviewed, and producing an artifact
that is not just all those reviews put
together, but a coherent and cohesive
narrative of the research to date, and a
narrative that points to a ‘gap’ in the
research that your work intends to fill. It
also contextualises the work in the
broader research scope.
• The underlying (or hidden)
theme of the narrative is to
show that there is a ‘gap’ in the
existing research and how your
work will address this problem.
To demonstrate to your examiner
that your contribution is new –
different from everyone else’s
Contents of Literature Review
The purpose of the review
1. The literature may point out gaps in the existing
knowledge that you may want look into- it helps you
in establishing the framework for your study.
2. To understand the theory, opinion, and comments
made by others related to the subject matter. This
will provide strong foundation in discussing your
work.
3. To avoid wasteful efforts that may arise because of
duplication of work.
4. To establish context, scope, and parameter within
which your research will be carry out.
5. To identify research strategies and specific
procedure and measuring instruments –
again to avoid wasteful efforts and ensuring
an efficient and effective ways to carry out
your research.
6. Familiarity with previous research also may
facilitate the interpretation of the results of
the study.
7. It can assist you in evaluating your own
research efforts by comparing them with
related efforts done by others.
Literature review in relation to
other steps
Literature review
Redefine the Provide

scope of conceptual
research as frameworks for
well as data collection
research & data analysis
questions
To do
good research
DON’T NEED TO
KNOW
EVERYTHING
HAVE TO KNOW WHAT IS

KNOWN &
UNKNOWN
Show what is known
• To provide a comprehensive
understanding about what is known
about a topic
To establish what is still
unknown……
1. Research may have been conducted
on a different population than the one
in which you are interested.
2. A flaw in previous research
3. Identify the existence of a new
emerging issue related to the problem
and propose studying the effect
4. Lack of consistency in previous
research
Steps of the Literature
Review process
• Selecting the topic
• Setting the topic in context
• Looking at information sources
• Getting the literature
• Reading and critically analysing the
literature.....refer Lit. RevTemplate
• Positioning the literature review
• Writing the literature review
Look at information sources
Classification of information sources
• General sources: daily newspapers,
news weeklies, magazines etc.
• Secondary sources: books, reviews
of research etc.
• Primary sources: journals,
abstracts, scholarly books etc.
Types of publications
– Journal articles
– Books
– Conference proceedings; Government
reports
– Theses/ dissertation
– Newspapers/ magazines
– The Internet
Literature search
techniques
• Keyword search
– To find topically relevant information from digital libraries,
databases, or the web
– Good in most cases
• Browsing
– To sift through collections of potentially relevant text
– Good where there are many relevant books/articles, but only
a few can be selected
• Chaining
– Tracking references and citations to find articles relevant to
a topic
– Good where the topic is very small
Define what you want to
know
“I’m looking for literature and data that
focus on the Business Process
Reengineering BPR”
• Use this to choose search words

and phrases
Define related search
words and phrases
• Business Process Reengineering
• Radical Process Improvement
• Process Benchmarking
• .........
• ...........etc.
Review of literature
In preparing the review the writer should
(Wiersma 1991)
a. Select studies that relate most directly to the

problem at hand
b. Tie together the results of the studies so that
their relevance is clear. Do not provide a
compendium of references without devoting a
paragraph or two to correct ideas and results
from the studies.
c. In case of conflicting finding one should
carefully examine variations in the findings
and possible explanations for them. Simply
averaging the differences will have negative
effect on the level of criticality of the thesis
and fails to recognise the complexity of the
problem.
d. State that the research area reviewed is
incomplete or requires extension. This
establishes need for research in the area.
e. Do not make the review a series of
quotations from literature.
f. The review should be organized
according to major points relevant to the
problem. Do not force review to be
chronologically.
g. The reader should be noted on the
relative importance of results from
studies reviewed. Some results have
more bearing on a problem than others.
h. Provide a summary to pull together all
the important points
No Authors Objectives of the Methodology Analysis Result Comments /
Title Study and the Techniques Gaps
Publication Related
Variables
Res. design Sample Instrument
1. Bradley, Aileen; McErlean Objectives: i. Food Modification Statistical

Seamus and Kirke, Alan. 1. To identify the Association processing of the Significant
(1995) diffusion pattern al Research industry in 4 instrument a. Regression
Technology Transfers in for the uptake of Survey – major used by B = f ( xl,
sectors: Paterson Education
the Northern Ireland food innovations mailed Q x2…x5, D)
processing sector. British and field poultry, level exerts the
dairy, red X1 = greatest
Food Journal. Vol. 97 (10). 2. To obtain a visits. (to profitability
Pp. 32 - 35 identify meat and influence on
measure for the drink. of innovation diffusion
rate technology appropriate X2
innovations) process
transfer investment
Sample size.. innovation
Variables: ii. Construct relative to
a model – company
Ind.Vars : based on turnover
Diffusion Pattern Mahajan &
Factors for the Peterson –
uptake of to identify
Innovation main factors
influencing
Dep. Var: diffusion
Technology process
Transfer
How to structure a literature review
Broad introduction
to topic
At the end of your

literature review the
reader must have
only one thought in
level of their heads…….
detail
DO I HAVE ENOUGH
INFORMATION OF
Specific information THE TOPIC?
of the topic
1.6.7 Micro Process 12
1.6.8 As-Is Process 12
1.6.9 To-Be Process
12
1.6.10 Activity Flow Diagram 1.6.11 Consumer Products 1.6.12 Management Process
12
12
13
1.7 Delimitations 13
1.8 Summary 13
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 14

2.1 Origin of Business Process Reengineering (BPR) 14
2.1.1 Definition of Business Process Reengineering 16
2.2 Development of BPR 16

2.2.1 Focus on Process 18
2.2.2 Why Was There the Need for BPR 21
2.2.3 Examples of Successful BPR Projects 22
2.2.4 Philosophy of BPR 24
2.2.5 BPR from 1990 — 2007 26
2.3 The BPR Team and Project Management 28

2.3.1 Success Factors 31
2.4 Implementation Issues in BPR 33

2.4.1 Human Issues in BPR 33
2.4.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Shared Service Approach
35
2.4.3 Strategic Issues 36
2.4.4 Change Management 38
2.5 BPR and Other Change Management Initiatives 41

2.5.1 Total Quality Management (TQM) 41
2.5.2 Shared Services 44
2.6 Contradictions in BPR 44
2.7 Human Issues 45
2.8 BPR and Information Technology 49
2.9 Focus on the Customer 53
2.10 BPR Maturity 55
2.11 Process Selection 56
2.12 Process Development 58
•vi
ii
Develop your Argument
• “you must build a case for what is known
about your topic and determine how this
knowledge addresses the research question.”
– Machi and McEvoy, 2009
• Develop two types of arguments:
– Argument of discovery – develop findings that
present the current state of knowledge about your
research interest
– Argument of advocacy – analyze and critique the
knowledge gained from developing the argument
of discovery to answer the research question
Survey and Critique the
Literature
• Develops the discovery argument and the
advocacy argument
• Answers the questions:
– “What do we know about the subject of our
study?”
– “Based on what we know, what conclusions
can we draw about the research question?”
• Critically assess each piece of literature
you have gathered to analyze its content
• You need to be:
– Systematic
– Rigorous
– Consistent
Literature
• Highlight and Extract Key Elements
– Trying to understand historical context and
current state
– Identify themes, trends, patterns
– Also looking for gaps and anomalies
– Key questions to ask of the literature:
• What are the origins and definitions of the topic?
• What are the key theories, concepts, and ideas?
• What are the major debates, arguments, and issues?
• What are the key questions and problems that have been
addressed to date?
• Are there any important issues that have been
insufficiently addressed to date?
Literature
• When analyzing research studies, must
also identify some of the key elements
that all research studies should include:
– Problem
– Purpose
– Research questions
– Sample
– Methodology
– Key findings
– Conclusions
– Recommendations
No Authors Objectives of the Methodology Analysis Result Comments /
Title Study and the Techniques Gaps
Publication Related
Variables
Res. design Sample Instrument
1. Bradley, Aileen; McErlean Objectives: i. Food Modification Statistical

Seamus and Kirke, Alan. 1. To identify the Association processing of the Significant
(1995) diffusion pattern al Research industry in 4 instrument a. Regression
Technology Transfers in for the uptake of Survey – major used by B = f ( xl,
sectors: Paterson Education
the Northern Ireland food innovations mailed Q x2…x5, D)
processing sector. British and field poultry, level exerts the
dairy, red X1 = greatest
Food Journal. Vol. 97 (10). 2. To obtain a visits. (to profitability
Pp. 32 - 35 identify meat and influence on
measure for the drink. of innovation diffusion
rate technology appropriate X2
innovations) process
transfer investment
Sample size.. innovation
Variables: ii. Construct relative to
a model – company
Ind.Vars : based on turnover
Diffusion Pattern Mahajan &
Factors for the Peterson –
uptake of to identify
Innovation main factors
influencing
Dep. Var: diffusion
Technology process
Transfer
Write the Review
• Use the results of your analysis and critique
of the literature to develop the organization
of your review
• Develop a detailed outline
– Identify the themes and/or patterns that have
emerged
– Translate these into headings and subheadings
– Be sure your outline is logical
• Be selective with the literature you include
Write the Review
• Synthesis synthesis synthesis!
• Reorganize and reassemble all of the separate
pieces and details to create an integrated whole
• Make connections between and among ideas and
concepts
• Never present a chain of isolated summaries of
previous studies
• The synthesis needs to build a knowledge base
AND extend new lines of thinking
• Remember – this is your entry into the
conversation
Write the Review
• Writing a literature review is a creative
activity
• “An imaginative approach to searching and
reviewing the literature includes having a
broad view of the topic; being open to new
ideas, methods, and arguments; ‘playing’
with different ideas to see whether you can
make new linkages; and following ideas to
see where they might lead.” – Bloomberg
and Volpe, 2008
Who wrote it and why did they write it
? What are the author's credentials?
Are the author's arguments supported
by evidence (e.g. primary historical
material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings)?
Validity- When was it published (and

what info has come out since)?
Where was it published and how
was it reviewed/edited (i.e. journal
paper )?
Direct Quote
Summary Paraphrased work

WRITING STYLES…..REPORTING VERBS
Examiner Checklist on
Literature Review
• Has the student laid the foundations for his/her work– why it is important that they
pursue their topic?
• Have they been able to show a gap in the literature?
• Is the nature/type of the research clear?
• Is the work well written, interesting and easy to read?
• Does the literature review read like a list of studies or does it build their
point/arguments.
• Is the work simply a repeat or cut and paste of other’s work?
• Are key researchers and important works included?
• Has research been examined for both content and methods?
• Have studies been compared and contrasted? Has the literature been extended?
• Has the student been critical in all areas of the research (design) and not just examined
the results?
• Is it ‘a students’ literature review – aimed at supporting their research, rather than
just being ‘a’ review of ‘the’ literature?
• Is each section important? Do they explain how that topic contributes to building a
cohesive argument/point
• Has the work explored what methods are used to carry out research in other studies?
• Are the limitations of the design/research methods discussed?
• For further discussions – refer example
‘Table of Content’ and ‘Literature Review
Matrix’ attached
1.6.7 Micro Process 12
1.6.8 As-Is Process 12
1.6.9 To-Be Process
12
1.6.10 Activity Flow Diagram 1.6.11 Consumer Products 1.6.12 Management Process
12
12
13
1.7 Delimitations 13
1.8 Summary 13
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 14

2.1 Origin of Business Process Reengineering (BPR) 14
2.1.1 Definition of Business Process Reengineering 16
2.2 Development of BPR 16

2.2.1 Focus on Process 18
2.2.2 Why Was There the Need for BPR 21
2.2.3 Examples of Successful BPR Projects 22
2.2.4 Philosophy of BPR 24
2.2.5 BPR from 1990 — 2007 26
2.3 The BPR Team and Project Management 28

2.3.1 Success Factors 31
2.4 Implementation Issues in BPR 33

2.4.1 Human Issues in BPR 33
2.4.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Shared Service Approach
35
2.4.3 Strategic Issues 36
2.4.4 Change Management 38
2.5 BPR and Other Change Management Initiatives 41

2.5.1 Total Quality Management (TQM) 41
2.5.2 Shared Services 44
2.6 Contradictions in BPR 44
2.7 Human Issues 45
2.8 BPR and Information Technology 49
2.9 Focus on the Customer 53
2.10 BPR Maturity 55
2.11 Process Selection 56
2.12 Process Development 58
•vi
ii
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical Framework
• Based on the problem statement and the literature

review, the next task to be taken by the researcher
is to develop a theoretical framework or sometimes
referred to as research framework for the study.
“A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of
how one theorizes the relationships among the
several factors that have been identified as
important to the research problem”.
“The theoretical framework is a logically developed,
described and elaborated network of associations
among variables deemed relevant to the problem
situation”.
• The theoretical framework is very important and
must be developed with great care because it is the
foundation/base for the entire research project.
Types of variables
• Dependent
• Independent
• Moderating
• Intervening
• Antecedents
Firm oriented
Recovery
Customer oriented
recovery
Employee oriented Customer

recovery
Retention
Atonement oriented
recovery
Justice oriented
recovery
EXTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING
• Amount of scanning
• Scanning Method
• Formal vs. informal
• Sources of information
• Personal vs. Impersonal
• External vs. Internal
• Scope of scanning
• General environment
• Task environment
INFORMATION PROCESSING
CAPACITY
• Organizational design
INVESTMENT
• Information support system
• Knowledge, Skills and decision DECISION QUALITY
experience
Independent Variables
Organizational context
Organization Structure
• Formalization
• Decentralization Intervening Variable
Extent of
Knowledge
Transfer
-Sharing
-Conversion
Organization Climate
• Supportive Climate Dependent Variable
• Innovative Climate
Availability of information
and Communication
Technology
Moderating Variable
Conceptual Model of the Research
Independent
variable Dependent variable
Market
Orientation
Customer Focus Organisationa

Market Intelligence l
Market Performance
Dissemination
Responsiveness Quality Orientation
• Top Management
Commitment
•Process quality
management
•Quality design
Moderator variable
There are seven basic features that should be
incorporated in any theoretical framework.
1. The variables considered relevant to the

study should be clearly identified and
labelled in the discussions.
2. The discussions should state how two or
more variables are related to each other.
This should be done for the important
relationships that are theorized to exist
among the variables.
3. If the nature and direction of the
relationship can be theorized on the
basis of the findings from research, then
there should be an indication in the
discussions as to whether the
relationship would be positive or
negative
4. There should be clear explanation of why

these relationships exist. The arguments
could be drawn from the previous
research findings.
4. The gaps in knowledge that still exists
although the above studies had been
undertaken – argued in the context of
your research problem and research
questions and/or hypotheses.
5. Each research question/hypothesis is
then been put forward.
7. A schematic diagram of the theoretical
framework should be given so that the reader
can visualize the theorized relationships.
• For further discussions – refer example
‘Adopting New Tech … Patterson’
attached
Relationship bet. Variables in
Theoritical Framework
• The theoretical framework can give us a clear
picture whether the study to be conducted should
address:
– A pure description of one variable.
– Relationship between 2 variable (bivariate) or more than 2
variables (multivariate)
• Relationship can exist in 2 forms.
– Causal Relationship
– Association
Causal relationship
• Causal relationship (cause and effect) can be
assessed only with experimental research designs.
Others research designs will assess the association
of the variables to each other.
Examples of possible ways to state relationships
• Causal Relationships
– Quality causes competitiveness
– Quality produces competitiveness
– Competitiveness is a function of Quality
– Competitiveness depends on Quality
– Competitiveness is a consequence of Quality
Association
• Association
– As Quality increases, competitiveness will increase.
– As Quality increases, competitiveness will decrease.
– Quality is positively related to competitiveness.
– Quality is negatively related to competitiveness.
– Quality is correlated with competitiveness
– Quality is associated with competitiveness
RESEARCH QUESTION AND
HYPOTHESES.
Research Question and
Hypotheses.
• The relationship explained in the theoretical
framework are then put into hypothesis or/and
research question.
• Hypothesis:
Is a declarative statement indicating a conjectured
relationship between two or more variables which
can be tested.
The purpose of it is to keep the researcher’s beliefs,
value and biases out of the research process itself.
One the hypothesis is stated it is there for any one to
use and test to find out if it is probably correct or
incorrect.
• Example:
The higher the degree of quality improvement
efforts, the higher will be the degree of
competitiveness of the organization.
• Research Question:
Is an interrogative statement asking about a
conjectured relationship between two or more
variables.
The purpose of it is to specify the variables and their

conjectured relationship when not conducting
hypothesis testing.
• Example:
Is the degree of Quality improvement effort related to
the degree of competitiveness of the organization.
To Use Hypothesis Testing or
Research Questions
Not all research projects require hypothesis testing. Generally,
hypothesis is not needed in situations.
Where:
a) You are using population instead of a sample of the population.
By definition hypothesis testing is used for the purpose of making
inferences about population from samples.
b) Pure descriptive research on one variable only (not even relating

it to the demographic variables).
E.g. univariate study
c) When you are not going to use hypothesis testing procedure.

Hypothesis testing refers to process of making of statistical
inferences about population characteristics by using data obtain
from samples of that population.
This may be due to 2 reasons:-
1. You don’t have sufficient information about variables and
their relationship cannot be found in the review of related
literatures. This makes it impossible for you to formulate
the hypothesis.
2. You cannot guarantee that the sample taken will represent
the population.
You cannot use Probabilistic Sampling, due to costs or
poor research infrastructure.
• No sampling frame etc.
You are not willing to pre-specify a probability level at
which the hypothesis will be considered supported.
This usually leads to the development of
Exploratory Research
It should be noted that:

1. Except for the analysis stage, the rest of the process and steps
for research question and hypothesis testing is almost identical.
In the analysis stage, the major differences between hypothesis
testing and using research question is that:
• With hypothesis testing
The significant level is selected prior to conducting the
research and if the analysis yields non- significant results,
the hypothesis is not supported.
• With research questions
The results of the analysis are simply reported and decisions
are NOT based on pre-specified significance level.
2. Research Projects can include both hypothesis and research
questions.
Sources of Research Question
and Hypothesis.
• Past Experience
• Observation
• Theory … literature review
METHODOLOGY
1. QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE METHODS
Research in Management is traditionally supported by two radically

distinct categories of methods:
Quantitative Methods
Qualitative Methods
Although they are sometimes said to be incompatible

(namely by members of the quantitative camp),
they should be seen as complementary to each other.
1. QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE
METHODS
The articulation between the two visions – quantitative and

qualitative – is actually leading to a ‘third major research paradigm’:
Mxed Methods
Quantitative methods are traditionally used in the natural sciences to study
natural phenomena with mathematical rigor, namely using statistical analysis.
A limited amount of variables is always assumed, and these

variables are measurable,
and holding mathematical relationships between each other.
Quantitative research generally emphasizes planning,

hypotheses, large random samples, and objective measures.
It assumes the existence of a distinction between

researcher and subjects, and aims at ‘generalizing’, i. e.
at producing laws applicable to much broader realities.
Qualitative methods are being used increasingly in the social and human
sciences for the study of highly complex and contingent phenomena, where
the numbers of variables is too high to be handled by quantitative methods.
In the past, the social and human sciences, for fear of

looking less respectable, tended to resort mainly to the
quantitative methods of the natural sciences.
Today, they are putting increasing emphasis on qualitative

research and, as a consequence, obtaining much richer results.
The growing attraction of Management based research

toward qualitative methods results, to a large extent, from the increasingly
complex, social and human, nature of the phenomena they deal with.
METHODOLOGY
Qualitative - Maximizes realism (internal
validity
Mixed-Mode - A Balanced Approach to
realism, control and
generalizability
Quantitative - Optimizes control and
generalizability (external
validity)
QUALITATIVE METHODS
From a large variety of qualitative research methods used in the
social and human sciences, four stand out as commonly used in
Management research:
•Case Studies
•Ethnographic Research
•Grounded Theory
•Action-Research
QUALITATIVE METHODS – CASE STUDIES
Case studies are the most common kind of qualitative method
used in Management research.
They let us study a phenomenon in its real context.
Typically, the researcher studies a case or variety of cases of real-world

organizations where management theories and practices are being
used and concludes about its impacts on the organizational context.
Case studies can also be used for quantitative research, in which case
they tend to follow a positivist approach. One of the best known books
on case studies (Yin, 1994) corresponds to this option. Other authors,
on the contrary, take interpretivist approaches.
QUALITATIVE METHODS – ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
Ethnographic research is inspired by the practices of cultural
and social anthropology, where the researcher integrates for a
period of time the community where the study is taking place.
This practice is also common in management studies, in studies

that try to
understand the behavior of the people in organization so that
relevant strategies and practices can be developed.
QUALITATIVE METHODS – GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded Theory is a research approach proposed the sociologists
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, who claim that research should
depart “from the ground”. The researcher categorizes empirically
collected data in order to build a general theory that fits the data.
In essence, it is based on the generation of theory from data.

This approach radically defies the traditional positivist
approaches, which claim that the researcher must depart from a
theory, establish hypotheses that conform to the theory, and than
get to the field to confirm the hypotheses in light of the theory.
QUALITATIVE METHODS – ACTION RESEARCH
Action-Research is today one of the more promising qualitative research
approaches in Management research.
In essence, it consists of repeatedly going through the cycle:

Planning => Action => Reflection
Action-research corresponds to what John Dewey

called the Principle of Intelligent Action.
We start by making a plan of our action in a crude first approximation,

we act following that plan, and we then reflect on the results obtained.
From this reflection, we correct our previous plan, act in agreement
with the new plan, and reflect on the results we have now obtained.
The cycles go on, repeatedly, until we are happy with the results.
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Methods of Conducting Quantitative
Research.
A number of methods can be used in carrying out the
quantitative research and this depends on the
research design chosen. Listed below are the methods
usually used for the 3 major quantitative research
designs.
Descriptive Research Design
Secondary Data… Meta Analysis
Surveys
Observation
Correlational (Associational) Research
Design
 Secondary Data… Meta Analysis

Surveys
Observation
Casual Research Design
Experiment
Conclusive Research
• The main objective of conclusive research is to ascertain
in detail about the research problems – detail
descriptions of a particular variable (descriptive
research), determine the association between variable
(correlational research) or determine the cause and
effect relation ships between the variables (causal
research). Better understanding of conclusive research
can be obtained by looking into greater detail the 3 type
of research mentioned above.
Descriptive Research
• As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive
research is to describe in great detail about a specific
variable or about a specific group of audience e.g.
customers, producers etc. It involves the analysis of the
5Ws.
• For example:-
– Who possesses the variable
– What are the factors/characteristics of the group
– Where is the group located
– When do they develop the characteristics
– Why do they behave in a particular way
• Methods used in descriptive research are mainly
quantitative research such as:
– Surveys
– Observational Techniques
– Secondary Data Analysis…Meta analysis
• Descriptive research can be carried out either cross-
sectionally pr longitudinally
Correlational (Associational)
• The aim of carrying out correlational research is to
determine the associational relationships between
variables in a research project.
• It is characterized by:
– A well structured theoretical framework
– Prior formulation and specification of
hypotheses
– A well pre-planned and structure research
methodology
• Structured Questionnaires
• Representative Sample
• Methods use in correlational research is quite similar to
that of descriptive research:-
– Surveys
– Observational Techniques
– Secondary Data Analysis
• Correlational research can be conducted either cross-
sectionally or longitudinally
Causal Research
• It is type of conclusive research design where the major
objective is to obtain evidence regarding cause – and –
effect (cause) relationship between variables in the
research project.
• Causal research is appropriate for the following
purpose:-
1. To understand which variable are the cause
(independent variables) and which variable are the
effect (dependent) of a phenomenon.
2. To determine the nature of the relationship between
the causal variables and effect to be predicted.
• Causal research is characterized by:
– A well structured theoretical framework
– A well pre-planned and structure research
methodology
– Manipulation of causal/independent variables and
controlling of other mediating variables
• The main method used in a causal research is
– Experimental
Descriptive Correlational Causal
Objective: Describe the Determine the Determine cause and

characteristics or association between effect relationship
functions of variables variables
Characteristics: Pre-planned and A well structured A well structured
structured research theoretical framework theoretical framework
methodology Pre-planned and Pre-planned and
structured research structured research
methodology methodology
Manipulation of one or
more independent
variables & control of
other mediating
variables
Methods: Surveys Surveys Experiments
Observational Observational
Techniques Techniques
Secondary Data Secondary Data
Analysis Analysis
SAMPLING
SAMPLING
• The purpose of carrying out survey is to collect
related information about the target group- i.e. the
population.
• Populations
Refers to the group which forms the subject of study
in a particular survey.
It is the group to which a researcher would like the
results of the study to be generalized.
A defined population has at least one characteristic
that differentiates it from other groups.
• Census
Occurs when a populations is examined in its
entirety.
• Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a number of
items or individuals or individuals represent the
large group from which they were selected. The
purpose of sample of sampling is to use a sample to
such information about a population. The reasons
for using a sample rather that collecting data from
the entire population:-
– Practicality
– Saving of resources (time, money and human)
THE SAMPLING PROCESS
Define &Select the Population
Define &Select the Sampling Unit
Search & selection Appropriate Sampling Frame
Specify Sampling Method/Design Determine Sample Size
Design the Sampling Plan
Select the sample

Choice points in sampling design
Is REPRESENTTATIVENESS of sample
critical for the study?
Yes No
Choose one of the Choose one of the NON-

PROBABILITY sample PROBABILITY sample
designs designs
If purpose of study If purpose of study

mainly is for: mainly is for:
Generalizability Assessing Collecting Gathering more To obtain quick, To obtain information

differential information in information even if relevant to and
parameter in a localized from a suspect unreliable available only with
sub-groups of area of the sample information certain groups
population
Choose Choose Choose Choose Choose Choose

Sample Systematic cluster area double convenience
Random sampling sampling sampling sampling sampling
Sampling if not
enough
RM
All subgroups have Looking for information Need responses of
equal number of that only a few special interest minority
elements “experts’ can provide? groups?
Choose judgment Choose quota

Yes No sampling sampling
Choose proportionate Choose disproportionate

stratified random stratified random
sampling sampling
• PROBABILISTIC SAMPLING
“A sample in which every member of the population
has a know, nonhero, chance of being chosen to be
surveyed”
• NON PROBABILISTIC SAMPLING

“ A type of sampling in which items are selected
from the population according to convenience, a
quota or the researcher’s judgments”.
SAMPLING METHOD/ DESIGN
Probability
ProbabilitySample
Sample
Simple Random Area Samples

Stratified Samples
Samples
Cluster Samples
Non- probability Sample
Judgment Samples Convenience Quata Samples

Samples
PROBILISTIC SAMPLING
• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE
“A probability sample in which all the members of
the population have being picked for the
survey/study”.
• SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE
“A probability sample in which the sample is choose
by selecting a random starting point and then
picking every nth element/member in succession
from the sampling frame”.
• STRATIFIED SAMPLE
“A probability sample in which researchers divide the
population into groups according to a common
characteristic and them apply a random sample to
each group”.
• CLUSTER SAMPLE
“A probability sample in which researchers decide the
population into natural groupings with internal
diversity and then select a few groups randomly.
Then either all the members in each of the randomly
chosen groups are then studies (one-stage cluster
sampling) or a sample of elements/ members from
each selected group/cluster (two-stage cluster
sampling”.
• Area Sample
“ a type of cluster sample in which geographic units
are used to define the cluster of the population”.
NON-PROBILISTIC SAMPLING
 Judgmental Sample
“A non-probability sample in which item are choose
from the population because the researcher believes
they are appropriate for the study”.
• Convenience Sample
“ A non-probability sample in which members of the
population are choose because they are convenient
or ready available”.
• Quata Sample
“ A non-probability sample involving items selected
for the population according to characteristics set by
the researcher”.
Measurement
Measurement
Measurement is central to the process of obtaining
data. How, and how well, the measurements in a
research project are made are critical in
determining whether the project will be a success.
“ You cannot manage that you cannot measure.
You cannot measure what you cannot
operationally define. You cannot operationally
define what you do not understand. You will not
succeed if you do not manage”
Defense Management System.
The tern number in the definition of measurement
does not always correspond to the layman
meaning of it. It does not necessarily mean
arithmetical numbers that can be added,
subtracted, divided, or multiplied. Instead it means
that numbers are used as symbols to represent
certain characteristics of the object. For example:
– Male
– Female
– Strongly Agree
……………..
– Strongly Disagree
The nature of the meaning of the numbers.

Symbols – depends on the nature of the
characteristics/attributes they are to represent and
Measurement may be defined as:
“ the assignment of numbers to characteristics of
objects, persons, states, or events, according to
rules”.
(Tull & Hawkins: 1993)
It should be noted here, what is measured is NOT

the object, person, state, or even itself but some
characteristics or attributes of it. For example, we
never measure people, only their motivational
level, age, height or some others characteristics
or attributes.
QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT
MAJOR WAYS TO COLLECT DATA
• Administer a standardized or existing instrument
e.g. Servqual, 16 PF etc.
Need to thorough check: validity, reliability, suitability
and feasibility.
Due to some factors such as cultural effect, we need to
modify the standardized instrument.
need to recheck the validity and reliability.
Record naturally available data.
e.g. sales, absenteeism etc.
the data sometimes cannot fit exactly the need of the
study.
PROCESS FOR SELECTING AN EXISTING
INSTRUMENT
• List the variables to be measured by the content of the
instruments.
• Examine sources of information about existing
instruments.
– Buros’ Mental Measurement Yearbooks [10]. List published
instruments in prints at time of publications and provides
descriptions and critiques of the instruments. Found in libraries.
Published periodically, not annually.
– Test in Print[11]. Provides title, publication date, authors,
publishers and comments. Found in libraries.
– Publishers’ catalogs. Provide information about instrument’s
purpose, content, administration time, cost and scoring services
available. Acquired from publisher.
– Specimen sets. Usually includes a specimen instrument,
technical manual, administrator’s manual, answers sheets and
information on ordering costs and additional services such as
– Professional journals. Occasionally new instruments are
available from authors of journal articles who usually have
conducted studies using these instruments. Many of these
have insufficient evidence of validity and reliability.
• Examine the technical manual to assess the evidence
provided for validity and reliability. Check that types,
magnitudes and sampling for validity and reliability are
appropriate.
• Examine the information on interpretation of the
instrument. There should be sufficient information for
the user to interpret the results correctly.
• Examine the directions to assess their clarity and ease
of use.
• Examine administration procedures including the time
necessary for ss lo complete the instrument.
• Examine the scoring procedures for sufficient detail,
ease and clarity to avoid errors.
HOW VARIABLES ARE MEASURED.
• Type of variables
1. “clear” and thus lends itself to some objective and
precise measurement.
e.g. Marital status, sex, jobs etc.
objective physical measuring devices can be used.
2. “Nebulous” and thus does not lends itself to precise
measurement because of its subjective nature.
e.g. Attitude, motivation, satisfaction etc.
HOW TO MEASURE “ NEBULOUS”
VARIABLES
• This can be done by reducing/simplifying the
abstract to observable behaviors and
characteristic exhibitive by those who
possesses these abstract qualities.
• E.g. thirst level  Quantity of fluids
consumed when they are thirsty.
• Reducing abstract concepts so that they
can be measured is called:
operationalization process.
OPERATIONAL DIFINITION
• Operationalizing , or operationally defining a concept to

that is becomes measurable, is achieved by looking at
the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted
by the concept, and categorizing these into observable
and measurable elements.
Dimensions (D) and elements (E) of the concepts (C) learning (L)
Learning
D D D
Understanding Retention (recall) Application
E E E E E
Answer Give Recall Solve problems Integrate with
question appropriate material after applying concepts other relevant
correctly example some lapse of understood and material
time recalled
C
Achievement
motivation
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Driven by work Unable to relax Impatience with Seeks moderate Seeks feedback
ineffectiveness challenge
E E
E E E
Constantly Persevering
despite Swears under Opts to do a Opts to take
working one’s breath challenging moderate, rather
setbacks
when even small rather than a then
mistake occur routine job overwhelming
E challenging
E
Very Does not like to
reluctant to work with slow or
take time inefficient people
off for
anything E E
Asks for Is implement for
E E
feedback on how immediate
Thinks of work Does not have the job has feedback
even at home any hobbies been done
WHAT AN OPERATIONAL DEFINATION IS
NOT
• An operational definition does not describe the
antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the
concepts.
• For example , performance or success cannot be a
dimension of achievement motivated, even though a
motivated person is likely to be highly successful in
performance the job. Thus, achievement motivation and
performance and/or success may be highly correlated,
but we cannot measure an individual’s level of motivation
through success and performance. Success could have
occurred as a consequence of achievement motivation,
but in and of themselves, the two are not measures of
achievement motivations.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
• In research, we normality classify scales of measurement
on the basis of mathematics comparisons that are
allowable with these scales. The 4 types of scale are:-
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Interval
– Ratio
Nominal Scale
• Nominal scale is usually used for obtaining personal data
such a gender, department in which one is working, and
so on, where grouping of individuals or objects is useful,
as in the case below.
1. Your Gender 2. Your department
• Male • Production
• Female • Sales
• Finance
• R&D
• Other
Ordinal Scale
• Ordinal scale is usually used to rate preferences or
usage of various brand of the product by individuals and
to rank order individuals, objects, or events as the
examples below.
• Rank the following personal computers with respects to
usage in your office, assigning the number 1 to the most
used system, 2 to the next most used systems and so
on. If particular
__ IBM PS2/30 system is not used at all in your office,
__Compaq
put a 0 against .
__ IBM/AT __ AT&T
__ IBM/XT ___ Tandy 2000
__ Apple ___ Other (specify)
Interval Scale
• Interval scale is used when responses to various items that measure
a variable can be tapped on five point ( or seven- points or any
others number of points) scale, which can thereafter be summated
across the items. See examples of Likert Scale:-
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5
1. My job offers me chance to 1 2 3 4 5

test myself and my abilities
2. Mastering these jobs meant a

lot to me. 1 2 3 4 5
Ratio Scales
• Ratio scale usually get used in organizational research
when exact figures on objective (as opposed to
subjective ) factors are called for, as in the following
question.
1. How many others organization did you work before joining this
systems? ______
2. Please indicates the number of children you have in each of
the following categories:
____ below 3 years of age
____ between 3 and 6
____ over 6 years but under 12
____ 12 years and over
3. How many retail outlets do you operate?
VALIDITY AND RIABILITY MEASUREMENT
• The main aim of any research project is to elicit

information. To be useful, information obtained must be
reasonably good. In order for us to have good
information, the instruments used in study must posses
certain qualities.
• The two criteria for testing the good ness of
measurement are:
– Validity The degree to which a test measures what it is
supposed to measure.
– Reliability The degree to which a test consistently
measures whatever it measures.
Testing goodness of measures – reliability and validity
Test - retest reliability

Stability
Reliability
Parallel – from reliability
(accuracy in
measurement)
Goodness of Consistency Interterm consistency reliability
data
Split-haft reliability
Validity (are
measuring the
right thing?)
Logical Criterion Congruent

validity related validity
validity
Face validity Predictive Concurrent Convergent Discriminant

The process for estimating content
validity
1. Examine the variables of interest and list the tasks or skill or other
characteristics involved.
2. Add to the list the importance (criticality) and frequency of
occurrence of each of the tasks or skills.
3. reexamine the list and make sure that all skill or tasks which are
crucial to the variable are included even if they occur infrequently.
Add any which may have been omitted.
4. Compare each of the tasks or skills on the list to the items of the
measure to ensure that each crucial and frequently occurring task
or skill is measured by at least one item. Usually more items are
included to assess those skills which are more important and
those which occur frequently, an additional aspect of the
representative ness of the measure to the variable being
measured.
5. Examine each item of the measure to ensure that the difficulty
level is appropriate for the variable being measured. For example,
if algebra ability is being assessed a series of items requiring
calculus would indicate poor content validity. If the ability to follow
simple directions is being assessed, items which require college
level reading ability would indicate poor content validity.
NOTE:
Content validity is rarely represented by numerical figure because
it is a logical process to comparing the components of a variable
to items of a measure.
THE PROCESS OF ESTIMATING
CONCURRENT
1. Gather scores from the non-validated instrument
administered to a validity sample.
2. Gather scores from a previously validity instrument
which purports to measure the same variable and which
is administered to THE SAME SAMPLE at
APPROXIMATELY THE SAME TIME.
3. Compute a correlation coefficient between the two sets
of scores.
PREDICTIVE
1. Gather scores on the predictor variable from a group of
subjects (the validity sample) for whom the instruments
is appropriate.
2. Gather scores on the criterion variable from the SAME
sample AT A LATER TIME.
3. Compute a correlation coefficient between the two
sets of scores.
CONSTURUCT VALIDITY
1. Examine the theory associated with the variable of
interest.
2. Select behaviors which the theory indicates would
differentiate subjects with differing amounts of the
variable. For example, self-concept would achieve at a
higher level, be promoted more often and be more
open in interpersonal relationships than would low self-
concept employees.
3. Administer the instrument measuring the variable of
interest to the validity sample and record the scores.
4. Gather scores for the validity sample on each of the
behavior selected in step #2.
5. Analyze the data using appropriate statistical tests to
ascertain if subjects scoring high the major variable
and those scoring low are statistically differentiated on
each of the selected criterion variable.
6. Accept evidence of construct validity if each of the
statistical tests indicates a significant difference or a
significant relationship between high and low scores
on the major variable and the criterion variables. If
even one of hypothesesized relationships is not
supported statistically then the instrument cannot be
said to evidence construct validity.
7. Examine reasons if construct validity is not supported.
Possible reasons include: (1) the theory is incorrect,
(2) the instrument was not a valid measure of the
variable of interest, or (3) there may have been errors
in the administration of the instrument, scoring or
analysis of the data.
THE PROCESS OF ESTIMATING TEST-
RETEST RELIABILITY.
NOTE: One form and two administrations of the instrument
are required.
• Administer the instrument to the reliability sample at

Time 1.
• Wait a period of time (e.g. , 2-4 weeks)
• Administer copies of the same instrument to the same
sample at Time 2.
• Correlate the scores from Times 1 and Time 2.
EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABILITY
• Note: two from and two administrations of the
instrument are required.
1. Administer Form A of the instrument to the reliability
sample.
2. Break the sample for a short rest period (10-20
minutes).
3. Administer Form B of the instrument to the same
reliability sample.
4. Correlate the scores from Form A and Form B.
THE PROCESS OF ESTIMATING SPLIT-
HAFT RELIABILITY
• NOTE: One form and one administration of the instrument are
required.
1. Obtain or generate an instrument in which the two halves were
formulated to measure the same variables.
2. Administer the instrument to the reliability sample.
3. Correlate the summed scores from the first haft (often the odd
numbered items) with summed scores from the second haft (often
the even numbered items).
4. Compute the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula* to correct for
n(rxx )
splitting one instrument into halves.
*Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula r corrected 1 =(n  1)rxx
where rxx= uncorrected reliability, and n= number of splits (for two

halves, n=2)
THE PROCESS FOR COMPUTING KR-20
RELIABILITY ESTATES.
• Note : One form and one administration of the instrument is
required.
1. Generate or selected an instrument.
2.  x 2 to the reliability sample.
Administer the instrument
3. Compute the variance ( ) of the scores.
4. Compute the proportion of correct responses to each item.
5. Compute the proportion of incorrect responses to each item.
6. Compute the KR-20 Formula. *
k pq
* rKR  20  ( )(1  2 )
k 1 x
Where k= number of items
 x 2= variance of total scores
p = proportion of correct (passing) responses
q = proportion of wrong (not passing) responses or 1-p
INTERRATER RELIABILITY
1. Select or generate an instrument
2. Randomly select a number of objects or events to be
rated.
3. Train the raters.
4. Have rater #1 judge each object or event
independently.
5. Have rater #2 judge each object or event
independently.
6. Correlate the scores of the two raters.*
*other statistical techniques may be used if there are
more than two rates. The statistical technique also
depends on the level of measurement of the rating
instrument used.
STAGE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF A
QUESTIONNAIRE
STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Exploratory Research
Formulation of Hypotheses
Planning
Information required
Stage
Population of relevance
Target group
Method of data collection
Order of topics
Wording and instructions
Type of question
Design Layout
Stage Scales
Probes and prompts
Pilot testing Pilot
Is design efficient? Stage
Coding
Time and cost
Final questionnaire
DESIGN QUESTIONNAIRES OR INTERVIEW SCHEDULES
1. List the variables and their operational definitions

2. Consider including demographic variables, if relevant.
3. Specify the type respondents.
4. Select mail, telephone or personal approach
5. Determine amount of structure for the questionnaire or
interview.
6. Determine the level of measurement desired and the type of
response format for each item.
7. Write the questionnaire items.
8. Check the items for invalidating factors and appropriate levels
of measurement.
9. Determine the placement and sequencing of items.
10. Write the introduction, directions and ending.
11. Determine the degree of interviewer direction to respondent, if
interviewing.
12. Train the questionnaire administrator or interviewer.
13. Compute the interrater reliability, if interviewing.
14. Use techniques for increasing response, if using the mail.
15. Conduct a pilot study.
16. Check that questions elicit appropriate measures of the variables
levels of measurement, ease of response, ease of administration
and that time of response for the instrument is appropriate.
17. Revise the instrument , if necessary.
SELECTED WAYS TO INCREASE RESPONSE
RATE OF MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES
• Include a cover letter which appeals to respondent’s affiliation such
as “ as a graduate of Universiti Utara Malaysia we feel you will want
to_____”
• Mail a reminder postcard about __day after first mailing. Every
respondent will have to receive this postcard unless ss who have
returned questionnaires are identified.
• Mail a second questionnaire about ___week after the postcard.
• Contact nonrespondent by telephone
• Enclose a token
• Write clear directions.
• Mention how little time is required to complete the questionnaire.
• Avoid open-ends items, if possible. People are more likely to
respond to a format in which they can check item rather than
generate responses.
• Structure item responses so respondent can answer quickly and
easily.
• Structure the entire questionnaire so respondent can complete it
easily and quickly. Make placement and sequencing of items logical
and easy follow.
• Ensure that the questionnaire is professionally typed and printed so
that its appearance gives the impression of credibility and
professionalism.
WRITING TIPS FOR MULTIPLE
CHOICE ITEMS
• Avoid leading or biased stems.
• Avoid items which respondents cannot or will not answer, or will not
answer truthfully.
• Ensure that the categories are mutually exclusive – that the
response can only be in one category.
• Ensure that the categories are inclusive – that they include all
reasonable answers to the question.
• Add a category “Other, please specify_____” if uncertain that the
category are inclusive.
• Read about instruments, if including scale.
• Limit the number of choices. Three to seven alternative responses
are usually sufficient with five alternatives commonly used. Beyond
seven choices the respondent has some difficulty in discriminating
and the time of response increases.
WRITING TIPS FOR OPEN-ENDED ITEMS
• “ what is your reaction to the current Federal Budget Deficit?" is an

open-ended items. This item could elicit responses from “I think it
stinks” to a four paragraph treatise on the subject. It would be better
to place that item into a multiple choice format and save the open-
ended items for measuring variables which require creative
responses such as “What would you recommend to decrease the
Federal Budget Deficit?”
• Newer use written open-ended items to elicit dichotomous
responses such as yes/no or agree/disagree. Provide these
responses for the respondent check to save both and researcher
time.
CHECLIST FOR EACH QUESTIONNAIRE ITEM*
• Will item yield data in the form required by the hypotheses or

research questions and the operational definitions?
• Will item yield data at the level of measurement required for the
selected statistical analysis?
• Does item avoid “leading” respondent to a specific response?
• Is item unbiased?
• Will most respondents have sufficient knowledge to answer item?
• Will most respondents be willing to answer item?
• Will most respondents answer item truthfully?
* All answers should be yes before proceeding with questionnaire.

INFORMATION USUALLY INCLUDED IN
QUESTIONNAIRE INTRODUCTIONS AND
COVER LETTERS
• Name of organization conducting the study. This not always the
same as the sponsor of the\study. Often giving the name of sponsor,
such as _____________, will elicit different responses than will
“the survey corporation.”
• Purpose the project. This should not be a lengthy explanation but
brief general statement such as “we are interested in your opinions
of various products.”
• How respondent was selected. Phrases such as “your name was
randomly selected _________.”
• Expression of appreciation for respondent’s help. Phrases such as
“we would very much appreciate your help _____.’
• Estimate of questionnaire completion time. Phrases such as “this
should only take about 10 minutes of your time.”
• Assurance of non-identification of respondent. Phrases such as ‘
you will no be identified by name.”
• Assurance of confidentiality of responses. Phrases such as “all
responses will remain confidential.”
• Directions for completion. Complete information on how to mark
responses should be given such as “ Please circle ONE answer for
each of the following questions.” Directions are not included in a
cover letter but are placed directly on the questionnaire where the
respondent can easily see them.
SUGGESTIONS FOR ITEM PLACEMENT
• Place introduction in a separate cover letter or at the top of the first
page.
• Place non-sensitive demographic items at the beginning of the
questionnaire because they are easy to answer, non-threatening
and tend to put the respondent at ease.
• Place items of major interest next, as there is a greater probability of
respondents completing the first part of the questionnaire.
• Sequence items of major interest in logical order, usually with items
on the same topic grouped together. Item sequence can lead to
biased responses so be careful that one item does not influence
the response to the following item.
• Place sensitive items (e.g. income) last so that resentment of the
intrusiveness of these items does not affect other responses.
• Group items with the same response formats together, if using
mixed response formats, unless this interferes with the desired
sequencing of items.
THE PROCESS FOR CONDUCTING A
PILOT TEST
• Select a sample similar to the sample to be used in the study but
which will not be included in the study.
• Copy a sufficient number of questionnaire for the pilot test study
sample.
• Instruct the questionnaire administrators to make notes of
respondent questions about the items or directions.
• Administer the questionnaires or interview schedules.
• Check the results of the pilot test:
– Did the items yield the desired information in the appropriate form?
– Did the items yield the selected levels of measurement?
– Were the directions clear to the respondents?
– Were respondents able to answer the questions easily?
– How much time did the fastest 90% of the respondents take to complete
the questionnaire or interview?
– How much time did it take 90% of the fastest questionnaire
administrators to give directions and complete the probing phase?
• Revise the questionnaire if responses to #5 are unsatisfactory.
• Retrain the questionnaire administrators or interviewers, if their
performance was unsatisfactory.
Survey Research
Surveys
Surveys ask respondents for

information using verbal or written
questioning
Respondents
Respondents are
a representative
sample of people
Gathering Information via
Surveys
• Quick
• Inexpensive
• Efficient
• Accurate
• Flexible
Time Period for Surveys
• Cross-sectional
• Longitudinal
Cross-Sectional Study
• A study in which various segments of a
population are sampled
• Data are collected at a single moment in
time.
Longitudinal Study
• A survey of respondents at different

times, thus allowing analysis of changes
over time.
• Tracking study - compare trends and
identify changes
– consumer satisfaction
Consumer Panel
• A longitudinal survey of the same sample
of individuals or households to record (in a
diary) their attitudes, behavior, or
purchasing habits over time.
Chapter 10:
Survey Research: Basic
Communication Methods
Surveys
Surveys as a respondent for information

using verbal or written questioning
Communicating with
Respondents
• Personal interviews
• Door-to-door
• Shopping mall intercepts
• Telephone interviews
• Self-administered questionnaires
Personal Interviews
Good Afternoon, my name is
_________. I am with _________
survey research company. We
are conducting a survey
on_________
Door-to-Door Personal Interview
• Speed of data collection
– Moderate to fast
• Geographical flexibility
– Limited to moderate
• Respondent cooperation
– Excellent
• Versatility of questioning
– Quite versatile
• Questionnaire length
– Long
• Item nonresponse
– Low
• Possibility of respondent
misunderstanding
– Lowest
• Degree of interviewer influence of answer
– High
• Supervision of interviewers
– Moderate
• Anonymity of respondent
– Low
• Ease of call back or follow-up
– Difficult
• Cost
– Highest
• Special features
– Visual materials may be shown or
demonstrated; extended probing possible
Mall Intercept Personal
Interview
– Fast
– Confined, urban bias
– Moderate to low
– Versatility of questioning
• Extremely versatile
Interview
• Speed of Data Collection
– Fast
• Geographical Flexibility
– Confined, urban bias
• Respondent Cooperation
– Moderate to low
– Versatility of Questioning
– Extremely versatile
Interview
– Moderate to long
– Medium
misunderstanding
– Lowest
Interview
• Degree of interviewer influence of answers
– Highest
– Moderate to high
– Low
Interview
– Difficult
• Cost
– Moderate to high
– Taste test, viewing of TV commercials
possible
Telephone Surveys
Telephone Surveys
• Speed of Data Collection
– Very fast
• Geographical Flexibility
– High
• Respondent Cooperation
– Good
• Versatility of Questioning
– Moderate
Telephone Surveys
• Questionnaire Length
– Moderate
• Item Nonresponse
– Medium
• Possibility of Respondent
Misunderstanding
– Average
• Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer
– Moderate
Telephone Surveys
– High, especially with central location WATS
interviewing
– Moderate
– Easy
Telephone Surveys
• Cost
– Low to moderate
– Fieldwork and supervision of data collection
are simplified; quite adaptable to computer
technology
Telephone Surveys
• Central location interviewing
• Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
• Computerized voice-activated interviews
Most Unlisted Markets
• Sacramento, CA
• Oakland, CA
• Fresno, CA
• Los Angles/Long Beach, CA
The Frame, November 2001 Published by Survey Sampling, Inc.
Self-Administered
Questionnaires
SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRES
PAPER ELECTRONIC
QUESTIONNAIRES QUESTIONNAIRES
MAIL IN-PERSON INSERTS FAX E-MAIL INTERNET KIOSK

DROP-OFF WEB SITE
Mail Surveys
Mail Surveys
– Researcher has no control over return of
questionnaire; slow
– High
– Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will
have low response rate
Mail Surveys
– Highly standardized format
– Varies depending on incentive
– High
Mail Surveys
misunderstanding
– Highest--no interviewer present for
clarification
• Degree of interviewer influence of answer
– None--interviewer absent
– Not applicable
Mail Surveys
– High
– Easy, but takes time
• Cost
– Lowest
How to Increase Response
Rates for Mail Surveys
• Write a “sales oriented” cover letter
• Money helps
- As a token of appreciation
- For a charity
• Stimulate respondents’ interest with interesting questi
• Follow Up
- Keying questionnaires with codes
• Advanced notification
• Sponsorship by a well-known and prestigious institutio
Increasing Response Rates
• Effective cover letter
• Money helps
• Interesting questions
• Follow-ups
• Advanced notification
• Survey sponsorship
• Keying questionnaires
E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys
– Instantaneous
• Geographic flexibility
– worldwide
• Cheaper distribution and processing costs
E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys
• Flexible, but
– Extensive differences in the capabilities of
respondents’ computers and e-mail software
limit the types of questions and the layout
• E-mails are not secure and
“eavesdropping” can possibly occur
– Varies depending if e-mail is seen as “spam”
Internet Surveys
• A self-administered questionnaire posted

on a Web site.
• Respondents provide answers to
questions displayed online by highlighting
a phrase, clicking an icon, or keying in an
answer.
Internet Surveys

– Instantaneous
• Cost effective
• Geographic flexibility
– worldwide
• Visual and interactive
Internet Surveys
– Varies depending on web site
– Varies depending on type of sample
– When user does not opt-in or expect a
voluntary survey cooperation is low.
– Self-selection problems in web site visitation
surveys - participants tend to be more deeply
involved than the average person.
Internet Surveys
– Extremely versatile
– Individualized base on respondent answers
– Longer questionnaires with panel samples
– Software can assure none
Internet Surveys
• Representative samples
• The quality of internet samples may vary
substantially.
• A sample of those who visit a web page
and voluntarily fill out a questionnaires can
have self-selection error.
Internet Surveys
• 1) not all individuals in the general public
have internet access
• 2) many respondents lack powerful
computers with high-speed connections to
the internet
• 3) many respondents computer skills will
be relatively unsophisticated.
Internet Surveys
• Possibility for respondent

misunderstanding
– High
• Interviewer influence of answers
– None
not required
Internet Surveys
• Anonymity of Respondent
– Respondent can be anonymous or known
• Ease of Callback or Follow-up
– difficult unless e-mail address is known
• Special Features
– allows graphics and streaming media
Welcome Screen
• Welcome Screen like a cover letter
• It contains the name of the research company
and how to contact the organization if there is a
problem or concern.
• "If you have any concerns or questions about
this survey, or if you experience any technical
difficulties, please contact (NAME OF
RESEARCH ORGANIZATION).
Welcome Screen should ask for
password and give instructions
• Please enter your personal password from your
invitation.Then, press the "enter" key to begin
the survey or simply click on the right arrow at
the bottom of the page to begin the survey (after
you have read the remaining instructions):
• During the survey, please do not use your
browser's FORWARD and BACK buttons.
• Use the arrows on the lower right to move
backward and forward through the survey.
There is no best form of
survey; each has
advantages and
disadvantages.
Selected Questions to
Determine the Appropriate
Technique
• Is the assistance of an interviewer
necessary?
• Are respondents interested in the issues
being investigated?
• Will cooperation be easily attained?
Selected Questions to
Determine the Appropriate
Technique
• How quickly is the information needed?
• Will the study require a long and complex
questionnaire?
• How large is the budget?
Pretesting
• A trial run with a group of respondents to
iron out fundamental problems in the
instructions of survey design
OBSERVATION METHOD
• Observation method becomes a tool in research when it is
conducted scientifically.
• Scientific observation can be defined as:
“The system process of recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects,
and occurrences without questioning or communicating with them. Here, the
researcher utilizes the observation method of data collection witnesses and
records information as events occur or compiles evidence from records of
post events”
• Observation becomes a tool for scientific inquiry when it:
– Serves a formulated research purpose.
– Is planned systematically.
– Is recorded systems systematically and related to more general
propositions rather than being presented as reflecting a set of
interesting curiosities.
– Is subjected to checks or controls on validity and reliability.
CLASSIFICATION OF OBSERVATIONS METHOD
• Observation methods may be classified mode of administration.
There are:-
a) Personal Observation
b) Mechanical Observation
c) Content Analysis
d) Trace Analysis
e) Audit
PERSONAL OBSERVATION
• It is a method where the research observes actual
behavior as it occurs. Should be noted here that this
method the must be no attempt by researcher to control
or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The
observed merely records what take place.
MECHANICAL OBSERVATION
• In mechanical observation, mechanical devices, rather than
human observed. These devices may or may not require the
respondents' direct participation. They are used for continuously
recording ongoing behavior for later analysis.
• Example mechanical observation devices are:-
 Psycho galvanometer
It measure changes in the electrical resistance of the skin. From the
strength of the response, the researcher can infers the respondent’s
interest lave and attitudes toward the stimulate.
• Voice Pitch Analysis:
It measures emotional reactions through changes in the
respondent’s voice. Changes in the relative vibration frequency
of the human voice that accompany emotional reaction are
measured with audio-adapted computer equipment.
• Response Latency:
Is the time respondent takes before answering a question. It is
used as a measure of the relative preference of various
alternatives. With computer-assisted data collection, response
latency is recorded accurately without the respondent’s
awareness.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
• It is an appropriate method when the phenomenon to be
observed is communication, rather than behavior or physical
object. The communication that take place can be through
interviews, reports, advertisement, contract, letter etc.
• It is defined as the objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of a communication. It
includes observation as well an as analysis. The unit of
analysis may be words, durations of massage or topics
highlighted.
TRACE ANALYSIS
• An observation method that can be inexpensive if
used creativity. It is an approach in which data
collection is based on physical traces, or evidence of
post behavior. These traces may be left intentionally
or unintentionally by the respondents.
• Example:
– The case of Income Tax Department and Mee Goreng
Seller … ‘kulit telur’
– The case of selective erosion of tiles in a museum.
– The case of ‘warna & kelusuhan’ pages in books etc.
AUDIT
• In a audit, the researcher collects data and information
by examining physical records and processes. It is
commonly used with the other three observation method.
• Example:
– ISO 9000 series certification audit.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• An experiment is a procedure in which one ( or
sometimes more than one) causal variable is
systematically manipulated and data on the effect
variables are gathered while controlling for other
variables that may influence the effect variable.
• In survey and observational studies there no
manipulation of independent variables by the researchers.
This is the fundamental difference between experimental
and non-experimental research.
• In searching for causal relationships in non-experimental
situations, the researcher must proceed ex pose factor –
that is, observe the effect and the search for a cause.
• In these circumstances we can never be completely sure
of the proper time order of occurrence of variable and the
effects of other possible independent variables that have
been included from consideration . The superiority of
experiments in this regard is absolute.
Decision Points For Embarking 0n An Experimental Design
Is tracing casual
effects necessary?
Do not undertake an experimental

Yes; and if No
design study
Internal validity is more Generalizability is Both internal validity and

important than external more important than external validity are
validity internal validity. important
Engage in a lab Engage in a fields First do a LAB experiment

experiment experiment. then, a FIELD experiment.
Are there cost

constraints?
Yes No
Engage in simper Engage in a more

experimental design sophistical design
A CLASSIFICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Experimental designs may be classified as pre-experimental,
true experimental, quasi experimental and statistical design.
• Pre-experimental designs do not employ randomization
procedures to control for extraneous factors. Examples of
these designs include the one-shot case study, the one-
group pretest-posttest design, and the static-group.
• In true experimental designs, the researcher can randomly
assign test units to experiment groups. Include in this
category are the pretest-posttest control group design, the
posttest only control group design, and the Soloman four-
group design.
• Quasi-experimental design result when the researcher is
unable to achieve full manipulation of scheduling or
allocation of treatments to test units but can still apply
part of the apparatus of true experimentation. Two such
designs are time series and multiple time series designs.
• A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that
allows for statistical control and analysis of external
variable. The basic designs used in statistical design
include pre-experimental and quasi-experimental.
• Statistical designs are classified on the basis of their
characteristics and use. The important statistical design
include randomized block design, Latin square design and
factorial designs.
A Classification of Experimental Design
Experimental
Designs
Pre-Experimental True-Experimental Quasi-Experimental Statistical
One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

Study Control Group Multiple Blocks
One Group Pretest- Posttest-Only Time Series Latin Square
Posttest Control Group
Factorial Design
Static Group
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• These designs are characterized by an absence of
randomization. Three specific designs are described: the
one shot case study, the one-group pretest-posttest
design, and the static group.
– One Shot Case Study
A pre-experimental design in which a single group of test
units is exposed to a treatment X, and then a single
measurement on the dependent variable is taken.
– Static Group Design
A pre-experimental design in which there are two groups: the
experimental group (EG), which is exposed to the treatment,
and the control group (CG). Measurement on both groups are
made only after the treatment, and test units are not assigned
at random.
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• The distinguishing feature of the true experimental
designs, as compared to pre-experimental designs, is
randomization. In true experimental designs, the
researcher randomly assigns test units to experimental
groups. True experimental designs include the pretest-
posttest control group design, the posttest-only control
group design, and the Soloman four-group design.
– Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
An experimental design in which the experimental group exposed
to the treatment but the control group is not. Pretest and
posttest measures are taken on both groups.
– Posttest-Only Control Group Design
An experimental design in which the experimental group is
exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no
pretest measure is taken.
– Soloman Four-Group Design
An experimental design that explicitly controls for interactive
testing effects, in addition to controlling for all the other
extraneous variables.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• A quasi-experimental design result under the following
conditions. First, the researcher can control when
measurement are taken and taken and on whom they are
taken. Second, the researcher lacks control over the
scheduling of the treatments and also is unable to expose
test unit to the treatments randomly. Quasi-experimental
design are useful because they are useful because they are
quicker and less expensive.
• However, because full experimental controls is lacking, the
researcher must take into account the specific variables
that are not controlled. Popular form of quasi-experimental
design are time series and multiple time series designs.
– Time Series Design
A quasi-experimental design which involves periodic
measurement on the dependent variables for a group of test
units. Then, the treatment is administered by the researcher or
occurs naturally. After the treatment, periodic measurements are
continued in order to determine the treatment effect.
– Multiple Time Series Design
A time series design that includes an-other group test units to
serve as a control group.
STATISCAL DESIGNS
• Statistical designs consist of a series of basis
experiments that allow for statistical control and analysis
of external variables. In other worlds, several basic
experiments are conducted simultaneously. Thus,
statistical designs are influenced by the some sources of
invalidity that effect the basic designs being used.
• Statistical designs offer the following advantages:
1) The effect of more than one independent variable can be
measured.
2) Specific extraneous variables can be statistically controlled
3) Economical designs can be formulated when each test unit is
measured more than once.
• The most of common statistical designs are the
randomized block design, the Latin square design and the
factorial design.
• Randomized Block Design
– A statistical design in which the test units are blocked on the
basis of an external variable to ensure that the various
experimental and control groups are matched closely on that
variable.
• Latin Square Design
– A statistical design that allow for the statistical control of two
no interacting external variable in addition to the manipulation
of the independent variable.
• Factorial Design
– A statistical experimental design which is used to measure the
effects of two or more independent variables at levels and to
allow for interactions between variables.
Case Study
Method
CASE STUDY METHOD
• One of the research methods that has
been widely used off-late is the
case study method. Case study refer
to:-
“A comprehensive description and analysis of a
situation which relates to the research problem.
This usually involves an independent
investigation based on a small number of case
involving people, organizations, or situations”
• Often the importance of case study has
been challenged by some critics (those
who only focused on survey and
experimental based research method) who
questioned its credibility. As reporter
by Yin (1989), among the prejudices put
against case are:-
a. Lack of rigor, because too many
times case study investigator has
allowed ambiguous evidence or biased
view to influence the direction of
findings and conclusions.
b. It provides very little basic for
scientific generalization
c. It takes too long and results in
massive unreadable documents.
• However, well known authorities on case
study method such as Yin R’K and Hakim C.
defended against these critics. Hakim
C.(1987) pointed out:-
“case studies are probably the most flexible of
all research designs (methods). At the simplest
level they provide descriptive accounts of one or
more cases. When used in an intellectually rigorous
manner to achieve experimental isolation of
selected factors, they offer the strength of
experimental research within nature setting. In
between these two extremes there is an extended
range of case studies combining exploratory work of
hunches hypotheses and ideas in varying
combinations.
The case study is the research equivalent of the
spotlight or the microscope; is value depends
crucially on how well the study is focused”
TYPES OF CASE STUDY
• For identification purpose, we can divide
case study into 3 (Hakim C.-1987)
– Descriptive Case Studies
It is carried out in situation where knowledge
on the topic related to it is relatively little
and previous research related to it almost
inexistence. Here, the case study carried out
can provide a richly detailed ‘portrait' of
particular phenomena.
– Selective Case Studies
In situation where knowledge on a particular
topic has accumulated through previous
research, selective case studies can be carried
out with the objective of refining knowledge by
selectively focusing on particular aspects, or
issues related to the problem statement.
For example, case studies can be used to
provide a more richly detailed and precise
account in previous research work.
– Experimental Isolation Based Case Studies.
At the most rigorous level, case studies can be
designed to achieve experimental isolation of
selected factors, variables or process within a
real-life context so as to provide a strong
test of prevailing explanations and ideas.
– Experimental isolation can be the alternative
to randomized assignment to treatments which
commonly held out as basic for experimental
research design.
– Treatments in case studies can be carried out
by specifying the factors to be included or
excluded and identifies one or more settings in
which they are present or absent.
FLEXIBILITY & DIVERSITY OF
CASE STUDIES
• The usage of multiple sources of
evidence.
Triangulation, the process of using
multiple source of information/evidence
allowed case studies to present a more
rounded and complete accounts of the
factors or variables under study. The
fieldwork for case studies may
incorporate the analysis of records and
documents, depth interviews, larger scale
structured surveys (personal interview or
postal surveys), participant and non-
participant observation.
• The option of focusing on a single case or
multiple cases.
Single case is often used for research on
typical, deviant or critical actions/
factors/process.
Multiple cases are used to achieve
replication of the same study in different
settings or to compare and contrast
different cases. Multiple cases studies
are more appropriate for research
questions where there is a need to provide
some degree of generalization.
Whether is a single or multiple case
studies some degree of prior knowledge of
the issues/factors to be addressed is
necessary before suitable cases are to be
selected.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Researchers who intend to pursue case
studies must make sure that they must have
necessary interviewing skills and must be
able to demonstrate a good deal of prior
knowledge of the subject. This is to
ensure that the researcher is able to
focus on the on the research area and not
carried away by other side-line issues and
organizational politics.
• Researchers must process necessary
analysis and report presentations skills
in order to make the case studies
successful. Two common errors usually
happen-researchers tend to present an
indigestible mass of detailed evidence in
the report, or to report only his
conclusions, instead of presenting
carefully selected robust and central
items of data in combination with the
various questions and issues addressed by
study. The usage of both qualitative and
quantitative data synergically will
provide more flavour to the research
report.
ROADMAP FOR CASE STUDIES
• Hussin (1994) in adapting the model
put forward by Yuri, Bases and More
(1983) proposed the following
roadmap for conducting case studies.
Figure 1: Case study Method
•Relate to previous theory

Develop Theory
•Aim for explanation
Select Case Design Data •Use formal data collection tech.

Collection
Protocol •Define process & outcome
Conduct 1st . Conduct 2nd. Conduct remaining case

case study case study study
Write individual case report/s
Draw cross-case conclusions
Modify theory
Develop Policy Implications
Write cross-case report

• In analyzing the roadmap for case studies,
Hussin (1994) pointed 4 elements that are
necessary in ensuring the successful
implementation of case studies. They case:
– Establishing theoretical framework through
careful definition of research questions and
working propositions.
– Identification of the suitable unit of analysis
(the case).
– Designing the right research instruments and
necessary protocols. (data gathering methods)
– Data analysis (linking the data logically to
propositions in interpreting the findings)
An Overview of the
Methodological Approach of
Action Research
Prof.Dr. Zakaria Abbas
312
Introduction
This presentation will answer
the question “What is Action
Research?”, giving an overview
of its processes and principles,
stating when it is appropriate to
use,
313
The role of the action
researcher will be briefly
mentioned, and some ethical
considerations discussed. The
tools of the action researcher,
particularly that of the use of
search conferences, will be put
forth.
314
What is Action Research?
Definition
"Action research...aims to contribute both to the practical

concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation
and to further the goals of social science simultaneously.
Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study
a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of
the system in changing it in what is together regarded as a
desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires
the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus it
stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect
of the research process.“ (Gilmore, Krantz & Ramirez, 1986)
315
Action research is known by many other
names, including participatory research,
collaborative inquiry, emancipatory research,
action learning, and contextural
action research, but all are variations on a
theme. Put simply, action research
is “learning by doing” - a group of people
identify a problem, do something to
resolve it, see how successful their efforts
were, and if not satisfied, try
again.
316
Several attributes separate action research
from other types of research. Primary is its
focus on turning the people involved into
researchers, too - people learn best, and
more willingly apply what they have learned,
when they do it themselves. It also has a
social dimension - the research takes place
in real-world situations, and aims to solve
real problems. Finally, the initiating
researcher, unlike in other disciplines, makes
no attempt to remain objective, but openly
acknowledges their bias to the other
participants. 317
What separates this type of research from
general professional practices,
consulting, or daily problem-solving is the
emphasis on scientific study, which
is to say the researcher studies the problem
systematically and ensures the
intervention is informed by theoretical
considerations. Much of the researcher’s
time is spent on refining the methodological
tools to suit the exigencies of the situation,
and on collecting, analyzing, and presenting
data on an ongoing, cyclical basis. 318
The Action Research Process
MacIsaac (1995) has developed a

simple model of the cyclical nature
of the typical action research
process (Figure 1, below). Each
cycle has four steps: plan,
act, observe, reflect.
319
FIGURE 1: Simple Action Research
Model
320
Susman (1983) gives a somewhat more elaborate
listing. He distinguishes five phases to be
conducted within each research cycle (Figure 2,
below). Initially, a problem is identified and data is
collected for a more detailed diagnosis. This is
followed by a collective postulation of several
possible solutions, from which a single plan of
action emerges and is implemented. Data on the
results of the intervention are collected and
analyzed, and the findings are interpreted in light of
how successful the action has been. At this point,
the problem is re-assessed and the process begins
another cycle. This process continues until the
problem is resolved. 321
DIAGNOSING
Identifying or defining a
problem
SPECIFYING ACTION PLANNING

LEARNING Considering alternative
Identifying general findings courses of action
EVALUATING TAKING ACTION

Studying the consequences Selecting a course of action
of an action
322
Principles of Action Research
What gives action research its

unique flavour is the set of
principles that
guide the research. Winter (1989)
provides a comprehensive
overview of six key
principles.
323
1) Reflexive critique
The principle of reflective critique ensures

people reflect on issues
and processes and make explicit the
interpretations, biases, assumptions and
concerns upon which judgments are made.
In this way, practical accounts can
give rise to theoretical considerations.
324
2) Dialectical critique
A dialectical critique is required to
understand the set of relationships both
between the phenomenon and its
context, and between the elements
constituting the phenomenon. The key
elements to focus attention on are
those constituent elements that are
unstable, or in opposition to one
another. These are the ones that are
most likely to create changes. 325
3) Collaborative Resource
Participants in an action research project are
co-researchers. The principle of
collaborative resource presupposes that
each person’s ideas are equally significant
as potential resources for creating
interpretive categories of analysis, credibility
stemming from the prior status of an idea-
holder. It especially makes possible the
insights gleaned from noting the
contradictions both between many
viewpoints and within a single viewpoint 326
4) Risk
The change process potentially threatens all

previously established ways of doing things, thus
creating psychic fears among the practitioners.
One of the more prominent fears comes from the
risk to ego stemming from open discussion of
one’s interpretations, ideas, and judgments.
Initiators of action research will use this principle to
allay others’ fears and invite participation by
pointing out that they, too, will be subject to the
same process, and that whatever the outcome,
learning will take place.
327
5) Plural Structure
The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity
of views, commentaries and critiques, leading to
multiple possible actions and interpretations. This
plural structure of inquiry requires a plural text for
reporting. This means that there will be many
accounts made explicit, with commentaries on
their contradictions, and a range of options for
action presented. A report, therefore, acts as a
support for ongoing discussion among
collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.
328
6) Theory, Practice, Transformation
For action researchers, theory informs practice,
practice refines theory, in a continuous
transformation. In any setting, people’s actions
are based on implicitly held assumptions, theories
and hypotheses, and with every observed
result, theoretical knowledge is enhanced. The
two are intertwined aspects of a single change
process. It is up to the researchers to make
explicit the theoretical justifications for the actions,
and to question the bases of those justifications.
The ensuing practical applications that follow are
subjected to further analysis, in a transformative
cycle that continuously alternates emphasis
329
between theory and practice.
When is Action Research used?
Action research is used in real situations, rather

than in contrived, experimental studies, since its
primary focus is on solving real problems. It can,
however, be used by social scientists for
preliminary or pilot research, especially when the
situation is too ambiguous to frame a precise
research question. Mostly, though, in accordance
with its principles, it is chosen when circumstances
require flexibility, the involvement of the people in
the research, or change must take place quickly or
holistically. 330
It is often the case that those who apply this
approach are practitioners who
wish to improve understanding of their
practice, social change activists trying
to mount an action campaign, or, more
likely, academics who have been invited
into an organization (or other domain) by
decision-makers aware of a problem
requiring action research, but lacking the
requisite methodological knowledge to
deal with it.
331
Action Research Tools
Action Research is more of a holistic approach to

problem-solving, rather than a single method for
collecting and analyzing data. Thus, it allows for
several different research tools to be used as the
project is conducted. These various methods,
which are generally common to the qualitative
research paradigm, include: keeping a research
journal, document collection and analysis,
participant observation recordings, questionnaire
surveys, structured and unstructured interviews,
and case studies.
332
The Search Conference
Of all of the tools utilized by action

researchers, the one that has been
developed exclusively to suit the needs of
the action research approach is that
of the search conference, initially developed
by Eric Trist and Fred Emery at
the Tavistock Institute in 1959, and first
implemented for the merger of
Bristol-Siddley Aircraft Engines in 1960. 333
Trist (1979) sums up the process quite nicely -
"Searching...is carried out in groups which are composed of the
relevant stakeholders. The group meets under social island
conditions for 2-3 days, sometimes as long as five. The
opening sessions are concerned with elucidating the factors
operating in the wider contextual environment - those producing
the meta-problems and likely to affect the future. The content is
contributed entirely by the members. The staff are facilitators
only. Items are listed in the first instance without criticism in the
plenary session and displayed on flip charts which surround the
room. The material is discussed in greater depth in small
groups and the composite picture checked out in plenary. The
group next examines its own organizational setting or settings
against this wider background and then proceeds to construct a
picture of a desirable future. It is surprising how much
agreement there often is. Only when all this has been done is
334
consideration given to action steps..."
A schematic of a typical search conference
(refer to Figure 3 )
335
Role of the Action Researcher
Upon invitation into a domain, the outside

researcher’s role is to implement the
Action Research method in such a
manner as to produce a mutually
agreeable outcome for all participants,
with the process being maintained by
them afterwards.
336
To accomplish this, it may
necessitate the adoption of many
different roles at various stages of
the process, including those of
planner leader
catalyzer facilitator
teacher designer
listener observer
synthesizer reporter
337
The main role, however, is to
nurture local leaders to the point
where they can
take responsibility for the process.
This point is reached they
understand the
methods and are able to carry on
when the initiating researcher
leaves.
338
Ethical Considerations
Because action research is carried out in

real-world circumstances, and involves
close and open communication among the
people involved, the researchers must pay
close attention to ethical considerations in
the conduct of their work. Winter (1996) lists
a number of principles:
339
· “Make sure that the relevant persons, committees and
authorities have been consulted, and that the principles
guiding the work are accepted in advance by all.
· All participants must be allowed to influence the work,
and the wishes of those who do not wish to participate
must be respected.
· The development of the work must remain visible and
open to suggestions from others.
· Permission must be obtained before making
observations or examining documents produced for other
purposes.
· Descriptions of others’ work and points of view must
be negotiated with those concerned before being
published.
· The researcher must accept responsibility for
maintaining confidentiality.” 340
SECONDARY DATA ANAYSIS
SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
• One of the popular research used in productivity studies
is the secondary data analysis method. Secondary data
analysis refer to any re-analysis of data collected by
another researcher or organization . It includes the
analysis of data set collated from a variety of sources to
create time series or area-based data set. Most
commonly, secondary analysis is applied to quantitative
data from previous studies including case study reports.
• The focus of secondary data analysis method is on the
distinctive contributions of secondary analysis, rather
than on additional analysis which extend or re-assess the
findings of the main report on a study.
APPROACH IN SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
• There are a number of approaches secondary data
analysis. They are:-
1) The usage of single data set, either to replica to original
researcher’s results or to address entirely different
questions.
2) The usage of single data set which is extended or
augmented by addition of data from other sources, this
providing a richer and a more comprehensive basis for the
secondary analysis study.
3) The more complex types or approach of secondary data
analysis involve the multiple data sets, to provide on
overall assessment of findings on a topic; to study trends
and changes over a long period of time; and to carry out
area; based research, especially for cross national
comparative studies.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. 2.To Expand the Current Theory

3. To Modify or Improve on the Research Methodology

1. 4. To Provide Empirical Evidences on Anecdotal ‘Facts’

The process must be “scientific”

To understand better the scientific approach in

- Any incident has its reasons ("determinism“)

** Unless it is in the form of REVEALED KNOWLEDGE

1. Identifying the problem that defines the goal of the

Literature Theory & Other

At the very heart of every research project is the

Human Customer Ahire et al (1996)

Supplier Sustainable Sustainability

When an organization’s board does not truly understand and support

Analysis of Literature Related

Product Life Cycle Nasr, & Thurston, 2006 Improved

Environmental Responsible Suppliers

Product Life Cycle

Product Life Cycle Nasr, & Thurston, 2006 Improved

Life Cycle Assessment Dean et,al, 1995 Closeness to

Environmental Responsible Suppliers

How existing method to an Need new challenges for

Adopt TBL issues for Need new

Environmental Responsible Suppliers

Product Life Cycle Nasr, & Thurston, 2006 Improved

Environmental Responsible Suppliers

Human Customer Ahire et al (1996)

Supplier Sustainable Sustainability

When an organization’s board does not truly understand and support

* Very crucial for applied research

7. State the problem statement and theoretical

2.What are service recovery strategies (represented by firm

Employee oriented Customer

Redefine the Provide

HAVE TO KNOW WHAT IS

• Use this to choose search words

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1. Bradley, Aileen; McErlean Objectives: i. Food Modification Statistical

At the end of your

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 14

2.2 Development of BPR 16

2.3 The BPR Team and Project Management 28

2.4 Implementation Issues in BPR 33

2.5 BPR and Other Change Management Initiatives 41

2.6 Contradictions in BPR 44

2.7 Human Issues 45

2.8 BPR and Information Technology 49

2.9 Focus on the Customer 53

2.10 BPR Maturity 55

2.11 Process Selection 56

2.12 Process Development 58

1. Bradley, Aileen; McErlean Objectives: i. Food Modification Statistical

Validity- When was it published (and

Summary Paraphrased work

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 14

2.2 Development of BPR 16

2.3 The BPR Team and Project Management 28

2.4 Implementation Issues in BPR 33

2.5 BPR and Other Change Management Initiatives 41

2.6 Contradictions in BPR 44

2.7 Human Issues 45

2.8 BPR and Information Technology 49

2.9 Focus on the Customer 53