Sina R.

Gomari
 Module Information
• Module Index: CBE4009-N -2014

• Credit Value: 20 credit points

• Unit type: Core module

• Availability Details:
– This module will be offered internally in Semester 2, through the School
of Science and Engineering
Module learning outcomes

 On completion of this module, graduates should

be able to:
 Demonstrate a comprehensive and critical
understanding of in depth of reservoir engineering
 Understand the physics of oil and gas in reservoirs
 Understand the EOR methods
 Evaluate the EOR projects
 Weekly Schedule
Week Time /Location Lecture /Practical

20/02 9-12 /M10.14 Reservoir Engineering Introduction –Basic

concepts in Reservoir Engineering
27/02 9-12 /M10.14 Types of Petroleum Reservoirs
1-4 /M10.14 Drive mechanisms /Material Balance

06/03 9-12 /M10.14 Oil and Gas Well Performance

13/03 9-12 /M10.14 Oil and Gas Well Performance

1-4/M10.14
20/03 9-12 /M10.14 Reservoir fluid flow/
Reservoir Heterogenity

27/03 9-12 /M10.14 Well testing

24/04 9-12 /M10.14 EOR Methods

01/05 9-12 /M10.14 EOR Methods

1-4/M10.14

08/05 9-12/M10.14 EOR Methods

15/05 9-12/M10.14 EOR Methods

 Recommended Texts and References
For Petroleum reservoir and EOR
1. The practice of reservoir engineering / L.P. Dake -2001 -
Available e-book ( Essential )

2. Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, By B.C. Craft and H.

Hawkins , 1991

3. Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering (Developments in

Petroleum Science), by L.P. Dake ( Essential )

4. - The properties of petroleum fluids / William D. McCain, Jr -

2nd ed. 1990. Available e-book

5. Enhanced Oil Recovery, Lateil, Gulf Pub. Co.,1980. ( Essential )

Definition of Reservoir Engineering
 The art of developing and producing oil and gas fluids
in such a manner as to obtain a high economic
recovery

 The working tools of reservoir engineer are subsurface

geology, applied mathematics, and the basic laws of
physics and chemistry governing the behavior of liquid
and vapor phases of crude oil, natural gas , and water
in reservoir rock.

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 Formation of oil and gas
 Organic theory of petroleum origin
 Most accepted theory
 Presence of ancient seas / Covered much of the land
 Rivers joining the seas/ Carrying large volumes of mud and
sedimentary materials ( including samll plant and animals )
into the sea
 Deposition of sedimentary martials/ Several layers
 Formation of sedimentary rocks ( Sandstone and shales /
carbonate )
 Sedimentary rocks provide pressure and heats and small
animals provides the source of petroleum ( Bacteria and other
reactions needed )
 Source Rock : The rocks where oil and gas were formed

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Source of sedimentation

Understanding Earth by Frank Press and Raymond Slever, 1998.

8
Conditions for Commercial Oil Accumulation
 Source Rock - generate oil and/or gas
 Temperature – Minimum 104 °F
 Reservoir Rock with porosity & permeability
 Trap - reservoir must be sealed by an impermeable cap rock to
prevent the escape of petroleum to the surface

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Sorting of sedimentary rocks

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 Type of rocks
 Siliclastics or classic rocks / silicate minerals transported by flowing rivers.

 Sandstone / entirely of well rounded, extremely well sorted quartz and feldspar particles

 calcite /the most common chemical sediments and are composed of fossilized skeletons and mineral grains of
calcite

Sedimentary rock – limestone Sedimentary rock – chalk

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 RE-Major areas

After about 10% production

STOOIP= Stock Tank

Recoverable reserve: Technically and economic
Original Oil in Place =
possible =OOIP*RF/Bo
A*h*Ø*(1-Swc)
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 Reserve
Quantity of crude oil, condensate, natural gas anticipated
to be commercially recoverable:
1. from known accumulation
2. under existing economic condition
3. under current government regulation

Types of Reserves
unproved
Proved 90 % Probable 50 % Possible 10 %

Developed Undeveloped
 Reserve
Unproved reserves are based on geologic and/or engineering data similar to that used in
estimates of proved reserves; but technical, contractual, economic, or regulatory uncertainties
preclude such reserves being classified as proved.

• Probable reserves are those unproved reserves which analysis of geological and engineering data
suggests are more likely than not to be recoverable. 50 % chance to get the reserve

• Possible reserves are those unproved reserves which analysis of geological and engineering
• data suggests are less likely to be recoverable than probable reserves. 10 % chance to get the
reserve
 RE Key properties- Porosity
 Porosity: ratio of pore volume to bulk volume ( usually %)

Note : we need at least two independent measurements of the three volume

contributors: bulk volume, pore volume and grain volume to determine
porosity.

Vp is pore volume ( Mercury injection methods, Fluid saturation method)

Vb is bulk volume (linear measurement ( using caliper) ,displacement method such as mercury immersion system
Vb= Wimm/rHg )

Vg is grain volume ( Direct method (destructive), Gas expansion methods ( Helium Porosity))

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Porosity measurement – Common lab measurements
Pore volume
Step 1 : The core is initially cleaned and dried- Measuring
Wdi

Step 2: Placed in a vacuum dessicator and saturated in

de-aired brine – Measuring Wsi

Step 3: The resaturation pore volume is obtained from

Bulk volume using Archimedes immersion

principal
Step 1 : Placed in a vacuum dessicator and saturated in de-
aired brine – Measuring Wsi
Step 2 : The plug is then placed in the cradle. The brine
container is jacked up until the plug is immersed in brine of
known density. Measuring W imm

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 Types of porosity
 Primary porosity : is formed during initial deposition and is principally
dependent on the depositional environment.

 Secondary porosity: is formed during rock diagenesis, typically due to the

dissolution of rock grains to form void spaces or vugs.

 Absolute porosity : is a measure of the total pore spaces in a rock as a function of

its bulk volume.

 Effective porosity: is a measure of the interconnected pore spaces in a reservoir

rock as a function of its bulk volume.

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RE Key properties –Permeability
 Permeability : is the ability of formation ( permeable rock) to transmit fluids
 Absolute permeability : the ability of the permeable rock to transmit a fluid
when only one fluid is present in the rock.

 Effective permeability : is a permeability of a rock to particular fluid in the

presence of combination of different fluids.
 ko – effective permeability to oil
 kg – effective permeability to gas
 Kw : kg – effective permeability to water

 Relative Permeability : defines the relative ability of different fluids to flow

simultaneously in a reservoir
 kro = ko/k – relative permeability to oil
 krg = kg/k – relative permeability to gas
 krw = kw/k – relative permeability to water

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RE Key properties – Darcy’s Law-Linear flow

 Assumptions for use of Darys Law

(i) Steady state flow ( no transient flow regims )
(ii) Laminar flow; ( not valid near well bore )
(iii) One phase present at 100% pore space saturation.
(iv) No reaction between fluid and rock;
(v) Rock is homogenous

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RE Key properties – Darcy’s Law-Linear flow
V = Q/A
Note : The negative sign in Equation is
necessary as the pressure increases in
one direction while the length
increases in the opposite direction.

• In SI units the unit of

K has the units of Darcy if : permeability is m2

• In petroleum industry , The

 cm3
Q: flow rate : S-1 Darcy is more convenient ( 1
D = 10-12 m2
 A: cross sectional area of porous medium : cm2
 P1: pressure at upstream end of porous medium : atm • In order to avoid the use of
 P2: pressure at downstream end Note: P1-P2 = ΔP : atm fractions in describing
permeabilities, the term
 μ: fluid viscosity , centipoise millidarcy is used. As the
 L: flow length of porous medium.: cm term indicates, one millidarcy,
i.e., 1 md, is equal to one-
thousandth of one Darcy
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RE Key properties – Darcy’s Law-Radial flow

The term dL has been

replaced by dr as the length
term has now become a
radius term.

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RE Key properties – Darcy equation in field units
Measurement made in the field are often qyoted
in filed units
Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day
Permeability, k - Darcy
Thickness or height of reservoir, h - feet
Pressure, P - psia
Viscosity, m - centipoise
Radius, r - feet
Length, L - feet

In case of linear flow

Darcy equation in field units

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RE Key properties – Permeability and Klinkenberg Effect
When a liquid is flowing through a capillary (analogous to a pore) there is a zero velocity layer at the pore walls

When gas is flowing, the layer of gas next to the surface of the wall is in motion with respect to the solid
surface.

At lower pressures (Pm ( mean pressure)), the molecules will collide less frequently and the gas slippage effect
is enhanced (and hence permeability is increased).
Measurements of gas permeability are made on the sample at a range of mean pressures, and
gas permeability is calculated for each mean pressure.

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RE Key properties – Permeability and Klinkenberg Effect

Klinkenberg Eq.

Kl= Kw but not

always . For rocks
contain clay Kw < Kl

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 Average permeability- Radial and Homogenous

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 Average permeability-Radial- Homogeneous

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Example

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Parameters affecting permeability data – Overburden
Measurements
 Core measurements made at ambient conditions in RCA programmes
cannot be reconciled directly with log or welltest measurements ??
 In situ stress
 Core data should be performed at at pressures which best simulate the
reservoir in-situ stress conditions.

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Parameters affecting permeability data – Overburden
Measurements
 Usually vertical stress ( Overburden ) can be measured or assumed
and the 2 other can be calculated with known the Poisson’s Ratio (v)

In a tectonically relax areas

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Compressibility of porous rock
 The overburden will be considered to produce hydrostatic stress (called the
compacting stress)
 Within the pores, fluid pressure acts on the surface of the grains and reduces
the grain-to-grain (or compacting) stress.

 if the pore pressure declines, the compacting stress increases and the pore
volume declines.

where Cf is the isothermal compressibility, v is the volume, dv is the

change in volume and dP is the change in pressure (the negative sign
accounts for the co-ordinate system: as the pressure increases, the
volume decreases).

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 ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY 2. Pore compressibility, cp
1. Rock-matrix compressibility, cr

3. Rock-bulk compressibility, cB
Formation compressibility; cf
 ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY
Porosity could change by changing the rocks compressibility

Porosity is function of cf

Show the derivation

 ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY

Total reservoir compressibility ct

  ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY
Typical values for the formation compressibility range from 3 x 10-6 to 25 x 10-6 psi-1.

V in BBLs)

Example
Calculate the reduction in the pore volume of a reservoir due to a pressure
drop of 10 psi. The reservoir original pore volume is one million
barrels with an estimated formation compressibility of 10 x 10-6 psi-1
Poro-Perm relationship
 Each reservoir has its own Poro-Perm relation
 Can be useful to obtain rock-type


Examples from North sea reservoirs

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Fluid saturation
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied
by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed
mathematically by the following relationship:

where
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sw = water saturation

Sg + So + Sw = 1.0

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Fluid saturation
 Residual oil saturation , Sor
 The remaining oil left after displacement process

 If water displces oil , Sorw

 If gas displaces oil , Sorg

 The term residual saturation is usually associated with

the nonwetting phase when it is being displaced by a
wetting phase.

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Fluid saturation
 Moveable oil saturation , Som
 the fraction of pore volume occupied by movable oil as
expressed by the following equation:

Som = 1 - Swc - Soc

where
Swc = connate water saturation
Soc = critical oil saturation

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Fluid saturation
 Critical gas saturation
As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves
from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the
reservoir pressure declines. The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation
exceeds a certain saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins
to move.

 Critical water saturation

The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water
saturation are extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water
saturation at which the water phase will remain immobile.

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Fluid saturation
Average Saturation
 Proper averaging of saturation data requires that the
saturation values be weighted by both the interval thickness
hi and interval porosity f. The average saturation of each
reservoir fluid is calculated from the following equations:
Fluid saturation
Example
Calculate average oil and connate water saturation
from the following measurements:
Capillary pressure –Physics of Capillary pressure
• Surface Forces and Capillary Pressures

Capillary forces in a reservoir are functions of surface and interfacial liquid tensions, pore
size and shape, and the wetting properties of the reservoir rock.

Surface tension (ST) ( Liquid –Air) is the tendency of a liquid to expose a minimum free surface.
IFT : The interfacial tension (IFT) is a similar tendency which exists when two
immiscible phases are in contact.

IFT and ST are commonly expressed in units of dyne/cm,

• Wettability
Definition : The wettability of a solid surface may be defined as the relative preference of that surface to
be covered by one of the fluids under consideration.

The contact angle, θ, is conventionally

measured through the liquid phase of the higher
density.

Classification: Internal 2013-

04-19 From : Amyx , Bass and Whiting 42
Capillary pressure –Physics of Capillary pressure

• Wettability

• Rise of Fluids in Capillaries

1) Consider tube as water-

wet
2) The wettability forces will
tend to pull the water up
inside the capillary tube
3) Wetting force will be
resisted by a gravity force

Simplified
Classification: Internal 2013-
04-19 43
Capillary pressure in reservoir rocks
If we consider the porous medium to be a bundle of capillary
tubes of different radii, the pressure required to force the entry of
non-wetting fluid to begin to displace the wetting fluid is:

The entry pressure is the

minimum pressure at which the
non-wetting fluid begins to enter
the rock sample, and is often
referred to as the threshold
pressure.

Classification: Internal 2013-

04-19 44
Capillary pressure in reservoir rocks –Key Features
Several factors influence the shape of
rock capillary pressure curves.

• Pore Size and Distribution

• Interfacial Tension
• Fluid Density
• Wettability
• Saturation History

Classification: Internal 2013-

04-19 45
 Capillary pressure in reservoir rocks –Liquid zones

Note : From a reservoir engineering standpoint, the free Note : The lower the permeability of the rock, the
lower the largest pore size and the higher that
water level is defined by zero capillary pressure.
pressure will be, for a constant wettability.
if the largest pore is so large that there is no capillary rise in this
size pore, then the free water level and 100% water saturation
level, i.e., WOC, will be the same.

For different rock type

Classification: Internal 2013-
04-19 46
Capillary pressure in reservoir rocks –Converting to deoth

Classification: Internal 2013-

04-19 47
Capillary pressure –Example

Classification: Internal 2013-

04-19 48
Capillary pressure –Application

Classification: Internal 2013-

04-19 49
Reservoir Saturation Distribution After Hydrocarbon Migration
Reservoir
Saturation
Profile
Shale Trap or Seal
(“Caprock”)
OIL
Irreducible Zone

Transition Zone
Oil/Water Contact

WATER
Water Leg or Aquifer

0 1
Sw
Shale + Kerogen Source Rock

50
Water Oil Contact
The WOC is defined as the “uppermost depth in the
reservoir where a 100% water saturation exists.”

Gas Oil Contact

The GOC is defined as the “minimum depth at which a
100% liquid, i.e., oil + water, saturation exists in the
reservoir.”
Capillary pressure Test methods
 Mercury-Air (Mercury Injection) Method

 Centrifuge Method

 Semi-Permeable Membrane (Porous Plate) Method

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