-The magnitude of the earthquake describes

the extent and severity of the damage it may

cause.magnitude measures the energy released
at the source of the earthquake while intesity
measures the strength of shaking produced by
the earthquake at a certain location.intensity is
determined from the effects on people,human
structures,and the natural environment.
An earthquake is caused by the
sudden release of slowly accumulating
strain energy along a fault within the
earth’s crust.

The type of hazard depends on the

strength of seismic activity,along with
such factors as local topographic and
built features,subsurface geology and
groundwater.A large earthquake will
always be followed by a sequence of
aftershocks.
GROUND SHAKING
-Is simply the vibration of the land
surface.generates enough shaking
intensity causing man-made stuctures like
buildings
,bridges and dams to be severely
damaged.
-Two critical factors are to be considered
when assessing the damage by an
earthquake on physical structures such as
buildings and houses.The first one is the
height of the building and second one is
the distance of the structures from the
source of the earthquake .
SURFACE FAULTING
-Surface faulting,also known as surface rupture is
offset or tearing of the ground surface by differential
movement along a fault during an earthquake.This
effect is generally associated with magnitudes of 5.5
or greater and is restricted to earthquake-prone
areas.It is associated with shallow earthquakes;that
is,the epicenter is less than 20 kilometers.
Displacements range from a few millimeters to
several meters,and the damage usually increases
with increasing displacement.Significant damage is
usually restricted to a narrow zone ranging up to 300
meters wide along the fault.It may occur three to four
kilometers from the main fault.The length of the
surface ruptures can range up to several hundred
kilometers.
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED
LANDSLIDES
Earthquake-induced landslides
occur under a wide range of
conditions:in steeply sloping to
nearly flat lang;in bedrock,loose
sediments,fill,and mine
dumps;under dry and very wet
conditions. Moisture content can
also be considered a criterion for
classification:some earthquake -
induced landslides can occur only
under very wet conditions.
ROCK AVALANCHES OR ROCK
SLIDES
- Rock avalanches originate on over-steepened
slopes in weak Rocks.It is a stream of very rapidly
moving debris derived from the disintegration of a
fallen rock mass of very large size; Rock avalanche
can be very destructive.It can bury an entire town
like what happened in Frank,Canada on April
29,1903 when a rockslide that lasted for 90 seconds
and involved some 30 million cubic meters of
limestone from the east face of turtle mountain
covered an area 3 km2 with an average depth of
14 m of rock debris, burying the southern part of the
town of frank,the main road,and killed about 70
people,There are multiple factors that triggered the
rock slide or rock avalanche primarily,Mountain's
unstable geological structure and mining activities
in the area.
ROCK FALLS
- A rock is a sudden, steep drop of rock
fragments or debris. Rockfall commonly occurs
on steep cliffs and may involve a single rock or
a mass of rocks.At the base of the cliff,the rock
fragments accumulate in a sloping pile known
as a talus (pronounced TAY-less). Rockfalls are
the result of cliff and hillside-erosion. The
geological factors that directly influence a rock
fall hazard are the characteristics of the
rock.physical and chemical changes in
rocks,and the rock strength.On the other
hand:the travel distance of the rock block
depends on factors such as the size of the
block,slope, the composition and the asperity
of the slope surface.
MUDFLOWS
Mudflows are rapidly moving
wet earth flows that can be
initiated by earthquake shaking
or a heavy rainstorm.Mudflows
causes siltation of rivers and
lakes affecting water and food
supply of the community.
Mudflows associated with
volcanoes are called lahars.
LIQUEFACTION
- Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which
the strength and stiffness of a soil are
reduced by earthquake shaking.Many
historical structures and landmarks
around the world have been destroyed
by liquefaction.These structures collapse
because the soil where their foundation
rest is weakened.The soil cannot hold
their weight any longer. On june
16,1964,a 7.6 M earthquake struck
Honshu,Japan.
HAZARDS DUE TO
LANDSLIDES
-A landslide may bury an entire community.An
example of which is the tragedy in
Guinsaugon in St Bernard,Southern Leyte in
2006 where more than 1,500 people died in
minutes.The whole village was buried in a
mixture of rocks,mud,stones, and limbs of trees
and coconuts from the nearby mountain that
had collapsed due to 10 days of continuous
heavy rain and ground shaking due to a 2.5M
earthquake.
-Landslides are classified into different types
based on the movement and the type of
material involved.
ROTATIONAL SLIDE
-A slide type landslide is a
down-slope movement of
material that occurs along a
distinctive surface. If this slip
surface is curved
the slide said to be rotational.
The slip surface of
a rotational landslide tends
to be deep.
TRANSLATIONAL SLIDE
- slide-type landslide is a
down-slope movement of
material that occurs along a
distinctive surface of
weakness such as a fault,
joint or bedding plane. If the
slip surface is straight then it
is termed translationalor
planar.
 BLOCK SLIDE
- A translational slide is sometimes
called a mudslide when it occurs
along gently sloping, discrete shear
planes in fine-grained rocks (such as
fissured clays) and the displaced
mass is fluidized by an increase in
pore water pressure. In a
rotational slide
FALL
-Falls are abrupt
movements of masses of
geological materials,such
as rocks and
boulders,which become
detached from steep slopes
or cliffs
TOPPLE
-Toppling failures are
distinguished by the forward
rotation of a unit or units
about some pivotal
point,below or low in the
unit,under the actions of
gravity and forces exerted
by adjacent units or by
fluids in cracks.
DEBRIS AVALANCHE
-A debris avalanche is
the sudden catastrophic
collapse (landslide) from
an unstable side of
a volcano.
Many volcanic cones
are steep sided and
unstable due to rapid
growth of the cone.
DEBRIS FLOW
-Debris slides and debris flows
are common in Norway. They
are triggered in steep terrain in
connection with heavy rain
and/or rapid snowmelt. Human
encroachment on steep slopes
may increase the risk of debris
collapses and subsequent and
debris flows.
EARHTFLOW
-An earthflow (earth flow) is a
downslope viscous flow of
fine-grained materials that
have been saturated with
water and moves under the
pull of gravity. It is an
intermediate type of mass
wasting that is between
downhill creep and mudflow.
CREEP
-Creep is the
imperceptibly
slow,steady,
downward
movement of slope-
forming soil or rock.
LATERAL SPREADS
-lateral spread or flow. Lateral
spread or flow are terms referring
to landslides that commonly form
on gentle slopes and that have
rapid fluid-like flow movement,
like water. Liquefaction
and lateral spreading occurred
along the west side of Sunset Lake
trailer park in Tumwater. ( Photo
courtesy of Geomatrix)
HAZARDS DUE TO
VOCLANO ERUPTIONS
-Volcanic
eruptionslike
earthquakes are
related to
tectonic plate
motion.
LAVA FLOWS
- Lava flows are the least hazardous of all processes in
volcanic eruptions. How far a lava flow travels depends on
the flows temperature, silica content, extrusion rate, and
slope of the land. A cold lava flow will not travel far and
neither will one that has a high silica content. Such a flow
would have a high viscosity (a high resistance to flow). A
basalt flow like those in Hawai'i have low silica contents and
low viscosities so they can flow long distances. Such a flow
can move as far away as 4 km from its source and have a
thickness of 10 m (Bryant, 1991). These flows can move at
rates of several kilometers per hour (Scott, 1989). More silica-
rich flows can move as far away as 1.3 km from their sources
and have thicknesses of 100 m (Bryant, 1991). These flows
can move at rates of a few to hundreds of meters per hour
(Scott, 1989). If a lava flow is channelized or travels
underground in a lava tube then the distance it travels is
greatly extended.
PYROCLASTIC DENSITY
CURRENT(PYROCLATIC
FLOW)
- Pyroclastic density
current is an
explosive eruptive
phenomenon.
PYROCLASTIC FALLS
-also known as volcanic
fallout,occur when tephra-
fragmented rock ranging a
millimeter tens of centimeters
is rejected from a volcanic
vent during an eruption and
falls to the ground some
distance away from the vent.
 LAHARS
- Lahars are a specific kind of mudflow
made up of volcanic debris.They can
form in a number of situations:when small
slope collapses,it gathers water on its way
down a volcano;through rapid melting of
snow and ice during an eruption,from
heavy rainfall on loose volcanic
debris,when a volcano erupts through a
crater lake,or when a crater lake drains
because of overflow or wall collapse
VOLCANO LANDSLIDES
-A landslide or debris
avalanche is a rapid
downhill movement of
rocky material,snow
and ice.
VOLCANIN GASES
-One of the hazards posed by volcanic
eruption is the release of volcanic
gases.These volcanic gases are dissolved in
magma.During volcanic eruption,the
magma rises towards the surface and as the
pressure decreases.These gases are
released from the liquid portion of the
magma and evantually released into the
atmosphere.The most abundant volcanic gas
is water vapor,which is harmless.Magma also
releases volcanic gases such as carbon
dioxide,sulfur,dioxide,hydrogen sulfide and
hydrogen halides (e.g.,HF,HCl,HBr).
CARBON DIOXIDE
-In an average
year,volcanoes
release between
about 180and 440
million tons of
carbon dioxide.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
- Sulfur dioxide is a gas. It is
invisible and has a nasty,
sharp smell. It reacts easily
with other substances to
form harmful compounds,
such as sulfuric acid,
sulfurous acid and sulfate
particles.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
-Hydrogen sulfide is
the chemical compound with
the chemical formula H2S. It is
a colorless gas with the
characteristic foul odor of
rotten eggs. It is very
poisonous, corrosive, and
flammable
HYDROGEN
HALIDES(HF,HCI,HBr)
- Hydrogen
halides are diatomic inorganic
compounds with the formula HX where X
is one of
the halogens: fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, or astatine.[1] Hydrogen halides
are gases that dissolve in water to give
acids[citation needed] which are commonly
known as hydrohalic acids
SULFUR DIOXIDE AND
EARTHS’CLIMATE
-Among the volcanic gases
ejected into the atmosphere
during volcanic
eruption,sulfur dioxide is the
most important for it
significantly alters the earth’s
climate.