CHAPTER 2

Diode Applications
By:
Nur Baya Binti Mohd Hashim
School of Computer and Communication Engineering

1
 Objectives
 Explain and analyze the operation of both half and full
wave rectifiers
 Explain and analyze filters and regulators and their
characteristics
 Explain and analyze the operation of diode limiting and
clamping circuits
 Explain and analyze the operation of diode voltage
multipliers
 Interpret and use a diode data sheet
 Troubleshoot simple diode circuits

2
 Lecture’s contents
 2-1 The Basic DC Power Supply
 2.2 Half-wave rectifier
 2-3 Full-wave rectifier
 2-4 Power supply filters and regulators
 2-5 Diode limiting and clamping circuits
 2-6 Voltage multipliers
 2-7 Diode data sheet
 2-8 Troubleshooting
 Summary
3
 2-1 The Basic DC Power Supply
Power supply is a group of circuits that convert the standard ac
voltage (120 V, 60 Hz) provided by the wall outlet to constant dc
voltage.
The voltage produced is used to power all types of electronic circuits
including:
Consumer electronics (ex: radio, television, DVD, etc.)
Computers
Industrial controllers
Most laboratory instrumentation systems and equipment
The dc voltage level required depends on the application, but most
applications require relatively low voltage.
There are two basic types of power supplies: a linear power supply
and a switching power supply. These components are described as
follows:
1. A linear power supply is one that provides a constant current
path between its input and its load.
2. A switching power supply provides an intermittent current
path between its input and its output.
4
 2-1 The Basic DC Power Supply(cont.)
The basic function of a DC power supply is to convert an AC
voltage to a constant DC voltage (AC  DC) Maintains a constant dc
voltage
Eliminates the fluctuations
- produce smooth dc voltage

Either half or full-wave

rectifier convert ac input voltage
to a pulsating dc voltage.
(a) Complete power supply with transformer, rectifier, filter, and regulator

(b) Half-wave rectifier

5
Fig. 2-1: Block diagram of a dc power supply with a load and rectifier.
 2-1 The Basic DC Power Supply(cont.)

Transformer
A transformer is a device that changes ac electric
power at one voltage level to ac electric power at
another voltage level through the action of a 
magnetic field.
Simple transformer consist of:
1. Primary winding (input winding)
2. Secondary winding (output winding)
3. Magnetic core
If the secondary has more turns than the primary,
the output voltage across the secondary will be
higher and the current will be smaller. If the Fig.2-2: The general arrangement
secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the of a transformer
output voltage across the secondary will be lower
and the current will be higher.
The core has a function to concentrate the magnetic
flux.
6
 2-1 The Basic DC Power Supply(cont.)
There are three types of transformers: step-up, step-down, and isolation.
These components are described as follows:
1. The step-up transformer provides a secondary voltage that is greater than
the primary voltage. Ex: a step-up transformer may provides a 240 Vac
output with a 120 Vac input.
2. The step-down transformer provides a secondary voltage that is less than
the primary voltage. Ex: a step-down transformer may provides a 30 Vac
output with a 120 Vac input.
3. An isolation transformer provides an output voltage that is equal to the input
voltage. This type of transformer is used to isolate the power supply
electrically from the ac power line.
N N N N N N
+ P S
+ + P S
+ + P S
+
120 240 120 30 120 120
Vac Vac Vac Vac Vac Vac
- - - - - -
Step-up
Step-down Isolation
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.2-3 7
 2-1 The Basic DC Power Supply(cont.)
The turns ratio of a transformer is equal to the voltage ratio of the
component and since, the voltage ratio is the inverse of the current ratio.
By formula:

N sec Vsec I pri

  (2-1)
N pri V pri I sec
where
NSec = the number of turns in the secondary
NPri = the number of turns in the primary
VSec = the secondary voltage
VPri = the primary voltage
ISec = the secondary current
IPri = the primary current

By the equation (2-1) can be stated that:

Step-down transformer secondary current is greater than its primary
current
(ISec > IPri).
Step-up transformer secondary current is less than its primary current
(IPri > ISec).
8
 2-2 Half-Wave Rectifiers

Diode – ability to conduct current in one direction and

block current in other direction
 used in circuit called RECTIFIER (ac dc)

Objective:
 Discuss the operation of half-wave rectifiers
 Describe a basic dc power supply & half-wave rectifications
 Determine the average value, VAVG of half-waves rectified voltage
 Discuss the effect of barrier potential, VP on a half-wave rectifier
output
 Define Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
 Describe Transformer-couple half-wave rectifier

9
 2-2 Half-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(The Half-Wave Rectifier)
ac source load resistor
•A half wave rectifier(ideal) allows
conduction for only 180° or half of
a complete cycle.
•During first one cycle:
-Vin goes positive – diode FB –
conduct current
-Vin goes negative – diode RB – no
current- 0V
•The output frequency is the same
as the input (same shape).

The average value

VDC or VAVG : Vp
VAVG 
 Ideal diode model
-Measure on dc voltmeter
10
 2-2 Half-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output)

 Practical Diode – barrier potential of 0.7V (Si) taken into

account.
 During +ve half-cycle – Vin must overcome Vpotential for
forward bias.
V p ( out)  V p (in)  0.7V
 Example 1: Calculate the peak o/p voltage, Vp(out)?
The peak o/p voltage:
V p (out)  V p (in)  0.7V
 5V  0.7V
 4.30V
11
 2-2 Half-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output)
Example 2:

Sketch the output V0 and determine the output level voltage for the
network in above figure.

12
 2-2Half-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
[Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)]

- Peak inverse
voltage (PIV) is
the maximum
voltage across the
diode when it is
in reverse bias.

The diode must be

capable of
PIV  V p (in)
withstanding this
amount of voltage.

13
 2-2 Half-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(Half-Wave Rectifier with Transformer-Coupled Input Voltage)
Transformers are often used for voltage change and isolation.
The turns ratio, n of the primary to secondary determines the output
versus the input.
Vsec  nV pri
The advantages of transformer coupling:
1) allows the source voltage to be stepped up or down
2) the ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus
prevents shock hazards in the secondary circuit.
to couple ac input
to the rectifier

N If n>1, Vsec is greater than Vpri. V p ( out)  V p (sec)  0.7V

n  sec If n<1, Vsec is less than Vpri.
N pri If n=1, Vsec= Vpri. PIV  V p (sec) 14
 Example 3:

Determine the peak value of output voltage as shown in below Figure.

15
 2-3 Full-Wave Rectifiers
(Introduction)

Objective:
 Explain & Analyze the operation of Full-Wave Rectifier.
 Discuss how full wave rectifier differs from half-wave
rectifier
 Determine the average value
 Describe the operation of center-tapped & bridge.
 Explain effects of the transformers turns ratio
 PIV
 Comparison between center-tapped & bridge.

16
 2-3 Full-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(Introduction)

A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both the positive and
negative half cycles or the full 360º whereas half-wave rectifier allows
only during one-half of the cycle.
The no. of +ve alternations is twice the half wave for the same time
interval
The output frequency is twice the input frequency.
The average value – the value measured on a dc voltmeter

2Vp Twice output

VAVG 


63.7% of Vp

17
 2-3 Full-Wave Rectifiers
(i - The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier)

•This method of rectification employs two diodes connected to a

secondary center-tapped transformer.
•The i/p voltage is coupled through the transformer to the
center-tapped secondary.
Coupled input
voltage

18
 2-3 Full-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(i - The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier)

•+ve half-cycle input voltage (forward-bias D1 & reverse-bias D2)-the

current pass through the D1 and RL

•-ve half-cycle input voltage (reverse-bias D1 & forward-bias D2)-the

current pass through D2 and RL

•The output current on both portions of the input cycle – same direction
through the load.

•The o/p voltage across the load resistors – full-wave rectifiers

19
 2-3 Full-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(i - The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier)
-Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage-

If n=1, Vp(out)=Vp(pri) - 0.7V

Vsec  2V pri
2
 Vp(sec)=Vp(pri)

If n=2,Vsec  2V pri

V p ( out)  V p ( pri)  0.7

• In any case, the o/p voltage is always
one-half of the total secondary voltage
minus the diode drop (barrier potential),
no matter what the turns ratio.

Vsec
Vout   0.7V
2 20
 2-3 Full-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(i - The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier)
-Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)-
V p (sec) V p (sec)
 Maximum anode voltage: D1   D2  
2 2
 D1: forward-bias – its cathode is at the same voltage of its anode minus diode drop;
This is also the voltage on the cathode of D2.
 PIV across D2 :
 V p (sec)    V p (sec) 
PIV    0.7V    
 2   2 
 V p (sec)  0.7V
 We know that
V p (sec)
V p ( out)   0.7V
2
 V p (sec)  2V p ( out)  1.4V
 Thus;

PIV  2V p ( out)  0.7V 21

 2-2 Full-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(ii - The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier)

 It employs four diodes arranged such that current flows in the direction
through the load during each half of the cycle.
When Vin +ve, D1 and D2 FB and conduct current. A voltage across RL
looks like +ve half of the input cycle. During this time, D3 and D4 are RB.
When Vin –ve, D3 and D4 are FB and conduct current. D1 and D2 are RB.
Used 4 diode:
2 diode in forward
2 diode in reverse
Without diode drop (ideal diode):
V p ( out)  V p (sec)

2 diode always in series with load

resistor during +ve and –ve half cycle .
With diode drop (practical diode):
V p ( out)  V p (sec)  1.4V
22
 2-2 Full-Wave Rectifiers (cont.)
(ii - The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier)

For ideal diode, PIV = Vp(out)

For each diode, PIV  V p ( out)  0.7V
PIV  V p (out)
0V (ideal diode)

PIV  V p ( out)  0.7V

Note that in most cases we take the diode drop into account.

23
2-3 Power Supply Filters And Regulators
(introduction)

Objective:

 Explain & Analyze the operation & characteristic of

power supply filters & Regulators
 Explain the purpose of a filter
 Describe the capacitor-input filter
 Define ripple voltage & calculate the ripple voltage
 Discuss surge current in capacitor-input filter
 Discuss voltage regulation & integrated circuit
regulator

24
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(introduction)

Power Supply Filters

 To reduce the fluctuations in the output voltage of half / full-wave
rectifier – produces constant-level dc voltage.
 It is necessary – electronic circuits require a constant source to provide
power & biasing for proper operation.
 Filters are implemented with capacitors.

Regulators
 Voltage regulation in power supply done using integrated circuit voltage
regulators.
 To prevent changes in the filtered dc voltage/ to fix output dc voltage
due to variations in input voltage or load.

25
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(introduction)
•In most power supply – 60 Hz ac power line voltage is converted to constant
dc voltage.
•60Hz pulsating dc output must be filtered to reduce the large voltage
variation.
•Small amount of fluctuation in the filter o/p voltage - ripple

ripple

26
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(Capacitor-Input Filter)
Capacitive Filter
Capacitive filter is simply a capacitor
connected in parallel with the load resistance
load
or connected from the rectifier output to
ground, as shown in Fig.2-39.

During the positive first quarter-cycle of the

input, the diode is forward-biased, allowing the capacitor
capacitor charges rapidly, as illustrated in
Fig.2-39(a).

When the input begins to go negative, the

diode is reverse-biased, and the capacitor
slowly discharges through the load resistance
(Fig.2-39(b)). As the output from the rectifier
drops below the charged voltage of the
capacitor, the capacitor acts as the voltage
source for the load.

During first quarter of the next cycle, as

illustrated in part (c), the diode will again
become forward-biased when the input voltage
exceeds the capacitor voltage. 27
 Ripple Voltage
Ripple voltage is the fluctuation in the capacitor voltage due to the difference
between the charge and discharge times.
The difference between the charge and discharge times is caused by two distinct
RC time constant in the circuit. One time constant is found as:

  RC
where R and C are the total circuit resistance and capacitance, respectively.
Since it takes five time constants for a capacitor to charge or discharge fully, this time
period (T) can be found as:

T  5RC  5

28
For example, refer to Fig. 2-40(a), the capacitor charges through the diode.
Assuming that diode has a forward resistance of 5 Ω, so the time constant for the
circuit is found as:

  (5 )(100 F )  500 s

and the total capacitor charge time is found as:

T  (5)(500 s)  2.5 ms

The discharge path for the capacitor is through the resistor as shown in Fig. 2-40(b).
For this circuit, the time constant is found as:

  (1 k)(100 F )  100 ms
and the total capacitor discharge time is found as:

T  (5)(100 ms)  500 ms

29
 (a) Charge circuit

(b) Discharge circuit

Fig.2-40: The basic capacitive filter.

30
 2-4Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(Capacitor-Input Filter)
Ripple Voltage: the variation in capacitor voltage due to the
charging and discharging times.
The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear.
The capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time
between peaks is shorter.

Easier to filter
-shorted time between
peaks.
-smaller ripple.

31
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(Capacitor-Input Filter)
Ripple factor: indication of the effectiveness of the filter
Vr ( pp )
r  [half-wave rectifier]
VDC
Vr(pp) = peak to peak ripple voltage; VDC = VAVG = average value of filter’s
•Lower ripple factor  better filter output voltage.
[can be lowered by increasing the value of filter capacitor
or increasing the load resistance]

•For the full-wave rectifier: V  1 

r ( pp )   V p ( rect ) Vp(rect) = unfiltered
 fRLC  peak.
 1 
VDC  V AVG   1  V p ( rect )
 2 fRLC  32
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(Capacitor-Input Filter)
Surge Current in the Capacitor-Input Filter:
When you first turn on power supply, the filter capacitor has no accumulated charge
to oppose Vp(sec). For first instant, the capacitor appears as a short circuit, thus the
current through the diodes can momentarily be quite high. To reduce risk of
damaging the diodes, a surge current limiting resistor is placed in series with the
filter and load.

The min. surge

Resistor values:

V p (sec)  1.4V
Rsurge  IFSM = forward surge
I FSM current rating
specified on
diode data sheet.

33
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(IC Regulators)

 Connected to the output of a filtered & maintains a constant output

voltage (or current) despite changes in the input, load current or
temperature.
 Combination of a large capacitor & an IC regulator – inexpensive &
produce excellent small power supply
 Popular IC regulators have 3 terminals:
(i) input terminal
(ii) output terminal
(iii) reference (or adjust) terminal
 Type number: 78xx (xx –refer to output voltage)
i.e 7805 (output voltage +5.0V); 7824 (output voltage +24V)

34
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(IC Regulators)

Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining ripple and maintaining the
output voltage to a specific value. Typically this regulation is performed by an
integrated circuit regulator. There are many different types used based on the voltage
and current requirements.
Connected to the output
of filtered rectifier

output

Bridge-full wave Gnd

rectifier filter regulators

Fig. 2-23 : A basic +5.0V regulated power supply

35
 2-4 Power Supply Filters And Regulators (cont.)
(Percent Regulations)

Percent Regulation
The regulation can be stated in a percentage in terms of input (line) regulation or
load regulation.
Line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage for a
given change in the input voltage. It is mathematically defined as a ratio of a
change in output voltage for a corresponding change in the input voltage
expressed as a percentage.
 VOUT 
Line regulation    x100%
 VIN 
Load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage over a
certain range of load current values, usually from minimum current (no load, NL)
to maximum current (full load, FL). It can be mathematically determined with the
following formula:
 VNL  VFL 
Load regulation    x100%
 VFL 
36
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits
(Introduction)

Objectives:
Analyze the operation of diode limiting, clamping circuit,
voltage multipliers and interpret and use diode data sheet.
Determine V of biased limiter & used voltage-divider bias to
set limiting level.
Discuss voltage doublers, triplers & quadruples.
Identify V & current ratings.
Determine the electrical characteristics of a diode.
Analyze graphical data
Select an appropriate diode for a given set of specifications.

37
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits
(Diode Limiters)

• Diode limiters/clippers – that limits/clips the portion of signal

voltage above or below certain level.
• Limiting circuits limit the positive or negative amount of an
input voltage to a specific value.
• 4 basic clipper configuration:
 Negative series clipper diode is in series with its load
 Positive series clipper
 Negative shunt clipper diode is in parallel with its load
 Positive shunt clipper

38
2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits
(Diode Limiters)

Clipper configuration

39
 2-5 Diode Limiters
(series clipper/limiter)
 Negative series clipper  Positive series clipper
 Diode is forward-biased during  Diode is reverse-biased during
+ve alternation of i/p signal. +ve alternation of i/p signal.
 Diode is reverse-biased when  Diode is forward-biased when
i/p signal is –ve. i/p signal is –ve.
 Eliminates negatives alternation  Eliminates positive alternation
of its i/p. of its input.

40
 2-5Diode Limiters
(shunt clipper/limiter)
Positive shunt clipper
 Forward-biased diode when i/p
is +ve cycle.
 Reverse-biased diode when i/p
is in –ve cycle.
 o/p signal is limit/clip to +0.7V
during +ve cycle of i/p signal.

Negative shunt clipper

 Reverse-biased diode act as
open cct during +ve cycle.
 Forward-biased diode act as
short cct during –ve cycle.
 o/p signal is limit/clip to -0.7V
during –ve cycle of i/p signal. 41
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits
(Diode Limiters)
Series clipper Shunt clipper
 When diode in –ve series  For –ve shunt, when i/p
clipper is FB, load voltage signal +ve cycle, diode is
is: VL=Vin – 0.7V RB (open circuit), thus:
 When diode is RB, doesn’t  RL 
Vout   Vin
conduct, so:  R1  RL 
 VL = 0V  During –ve cycle, diode is
 +ve series clipper operates FB, load voltage is equal
the same. The only to diode forward voltage.
differences are: VL = -VF = -0.7V
 O/p voltage polarities are
 For +ve shunt, o/p voltage
reversed. VL=-Vin + 0.7V
and current direction are
 Current direction through cct
are reversed. reversed.
42
Question 4:
What would you expect to see displayed on an oscilloscope connected
across RL in the limiter shown below.

43
 Solution question 4
 The diode is forward biased and conducts when input
voltage goes below -0.7V. So, for –ve limiter, the
peak output voltage across RL is:

 RL   1.0k 
V p( out )   V p( in)   10V  9.09V
 R1  RL   1.1k 
 The waveform is shown below:


44
 2.5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits (cont.)
(Diode Limiters)
Biased Limiters :
• Use dc biasing source, VBIAS to set limit on the circuit output voltage.
• This allow the circuit to clip input waveform at values other than diode forward voltage,
0.7V.
• In each circuit, bias voltage is in series with shunt diode. As a result, the diode conducts and
clips the i/p waveform when signal voltage equals sum of VF and VBIAS.
• 2 type of biased limiter: positive-biased limiter negative-biased limiter
• Positive limiter
• The voltage at point A must equal VBIAS+0.7V before diode become FB and
conduct.
• Once diode begin to conduct, voltage at point A is limited to VBIAS+0.7V, so all i/p
voltage above this level is clipped off.
• Negative limiter
• Voltage at point A must go below –VBIAS - 0.7V to forward-bias the diode and
initiate limiting action.

A positive limiter A negative limiter 45

 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits (cont.)
(Diode Limiters)
Voltage-Divider Bias:

• The bias voltage source – used to illustrate the basic operation of diode limiters can
be replace by a resistive voltage divider that derives the desired bias voltage from dc
Vsupply .
• VBIAS – set by the resistor values according to the voltage-divider formula:
 R3 
VBIAS   VSUPPLY
 R2  R3 
• The desired amount of limitation can be attained by a power supply or voltage
divider. The amount clipped can be adjusted with different levels of VBIAS.
• The bias resistor << R1- the forward current through the diode will not effect VBIAS

46
47
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits (cont.)
(Diode Limiter Applications)

 Half-wave rectifier
 Circuit alters the shape of ac signal and change it to pulsating
dc.
 Transient protection circuit
 Transient  abrupt current or voltage spike in short duration.
 Many digital circuits have i/p that cannot tolerate voltage fall
outside a specified range which can cause serious damage. A
clipper can be used to protect these circuits.
 AM detector
 Eliminate –ve portion of i/p waveform, so capacitor charges and
discharges at rate of peak i/p variations. This provides a signal at
load that is a reproduction of i/p signal.

48
 Example 5:
1. Sketch the output voltage waveform as shown in the circuit combining
a positive limiter with negative limiter in Figure 5-1.

+15V

6V 6V
-15V

Figure 5-1

49
 Example 5 (cont.):
2. A student construct the circuit as shown in Figure 5-2. Describe the output
voltage waveform on oscilloscope CH2.

+15V

+20V
CH2

-20V

Figure 5-2
50
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits (cont.)
(Diode Clampers)
2.7 Clampers (DC Restorers)

Clamper is a diode circuit designed to shift a waveform either above or below a given
reference voltage without distorting the waveform.

There are two types of clampers: the positive clamper and the negative clamper.
1. A positive clamper shifts its input waveform so that the negative peak of the
waveform is equal to the clamper dc reference voltage.
For example: Fig. 2-54 shows what happens when a 20 Vpp sin wave is applied to a
positive clamper with a dc reference of 0 V. The input and output waveforms have the
value of 20 Vpp. However, the clamper output waveform has the positive peak of +20 V and
the negative peak of 0 V. The positive clamper has shifted the entire waveform so that
its negative peak is equal to the circuit’s dc reference voltage.
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits (cont.)
(Diode Clampers)
2. A negative clamper shifts its input waveform so that the positive peak of the waveform
is equal to the clamper dc reference voltage.
For example: Fig. 2-55 shows what happens when a 20 Vpp sin wave is applied to
a negative clamper with a dc reference of 0 V. In this case, The clamper output
waveform has the positive peak of 0 V and the negative peak of –20 V. The
negative clamper has shifted the entire waveform so that its negative peak is
equal to the circuit’s dc reference voltage.
 Clamper Operation
The clamper is similar to a shunt clipper; the
difference is added capacitor in the clamper,
as illustrated in Fig. 2-56.
For the circuit in Fig. 2-56(a), the diode is
forward biased and it charges the capacitor.
Thus, the charging time constant is found
as:
(a) Capacitor charge circuit

  RDC (2-39)

+
where RD is bulk resistance of the Reverse-
diode and C is capacitance of the biased
−
capacitor. The total charge time is:

(b) Capacitor discharge circuit

TCh arg e  5 RD C (2-40)

Fig.2-56: Clamper charge and discharge

When the diode is reverse biased, the capacitor starts to discharge through the resistor,
as shown in Fig. 2-56(b). Therefore, the discharge time constant is found as:

  RLC (2-41)

and the total discharge time is found as:

TDischarg e  5RLC (2-42)

The effect of the clamping action is shown in Fig. 2-56. The capacitor retains a charge
approximately equal to the input peak less the diode drop so that it acts as a battery.

Fig.2-57: Positive
clamper operation

54
If the diode is turned around, a negative dc voltage is added to the input
voltage to produce the output voltage as shown in Fig. 2-57:

Fig.2-57: Negative clamper operation

55
 2-5 Diode Limiting & Clamping Circuits (cont.)
(Diode Clampers)

A Clamper Application:

A clamping circuit is often used in TV receivers as a dc

restorer.

The incoming composite video signal is normally processed

through capacitively coupled amplifiers that eliminate the dc
component, thus losing black and white reference levels and
the blanking level. Before applied to the picture tube, these
reference level must be restored.

56
 2-6 Voltage Multiplier
(Introduction)

• Use clamping action to increase peak rectified voltages

without necessary to increase input transformer’s voltage
rating.
• Multiplication factors: two, three or four.
• Three types of voltage multipliers:
* Voltage doubler
- Half – wave voltage doubler
- Full – wave voltage doubler
* Voltage tripler
* Voltage Quadrupler
• Voltage multipliers are used in high-voltage, low current
applications, i.e TV receivers.

57
 2-6 Voltage Multiplier (cont.)
(Voltage Doubler)
Half-wave voltage Doubler:
Clamping action can be used to increase peak rectified voltage. Once C1 and C2
charges to the peak voltage they act like two batteries in series, effectively
doubling the voltage output. The current capacity for voltage multipliers is low.
PIV = 2Vp

By applying Kirchhoff’s Law at (b):

VC 2  V p  VC1 ~ approximately 2Vp (neglecting diode drop D2)

Half-wave voltage doubler operation. Vp is the peak secondary voltage.
58
 2-6 Voltage Multiplier (cont.)
(Voltage Doubler)
Full-wave voltage doubler:
Arrangement of diodes and capacitors takes advantage of both
positive and negative peaks to charge the capacitors giving it more
current capacity. forward-bias output
charges

forward-bias
charges
Secondary voltage positive Secondary voltage negative

59
 2-6 Voltage Multiplier (cont.)
(Voltage Tripler & Voltage Quadrupler)
 Voltage triplers and quadruplers utilize three and four diode capacitor
arrangements, respectively.
 Voltage tripler and quadrupler gives output 3Vp and 4Vp, respectively.
 Tripler output is taken across C1 and C3, thus Vout = 3Vp
 Quadrupler output is taken across C2 and C4 , thus Vout = 4Vp
 PIV for both cases: PIV = 2Vp

Voltage Triple Voltage Quadruple

60
 2-7 The Diode Data Sheet
(Introduction)

• The data sheet for diodes and other devices gives detailed
information about specific characteristics such as the various
maximum current and voltage ratings, temperature range,
and voltage versus current curves (V-I characteristic).
• It is sometimes a very valuable piece of information, even for
a technician. There are cases when you might have to select a
replacement diode when the type of diode needed may no
longer be available.
• These are the absolute max. values under which the diode can
be operated without damage to the device.

61
 2-7 The Diode Data Sheet (cont.)
(Maximum Rating)
Rating Symbol 1N4001 1N4002 1N4003 UNIT
Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM
Working peak reverse voltage VRWM 50 100 200 V
DC blocking voltage VR
Nonrepetitive peak reverse VRSM 60 120 240 V
voltage
rms reverse voltage VR(rms) 35 70 140 V

Average rectified forward Io A

current (single-phase, resistive 1
load, 60Hz, TA = 75oC
Nonrepetitive peak surge IFSM A
current (surge applied at rated 30 (for 1
load conditions) cycle)
Operating and storage junction Tj, Tstg -65 to oC

temperature range +175

62
 2-7 The Diode Data Sheet (cont.)
(Maximum Rating)

FIGURE 2-56 A selection of rectifier diodes based on maximum ratings of IO, IFSM,
and IRRM.
63
 2-8Troubleshooting
(introduction)
Objective:

Troubleshoot diode circuits using accepted techniques.

 Discuss the relationship between symptom & cause, power check,
sensory check, component replacement method and discuss the
signal tracing technique in the three variations.
 Fault analysis.

Our study of these devices and how they work leads more effective
troubleshooting. Efficient troubleshooting requires us to take logical steps in
sequence. Knowing how a device, circuit, or system works when operating
properly must be known before any attempts are made to troubleshoot. The
symptoms shown by a defective device often point directly to the point of
failure. There are many different methods for troubleshooting. We will
discuss a few.

64
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(Troubleshooting Techniques)

Here are some helpful troubleshooting techniques:

 Power Check: Sometimes the obvious eludes the most
proficient troubleshooters. Check for fuses blown, power
cords plugged in, and correct battery placement.
 Sensory Check: What you see or smell may lead you
directly to the failure or to a symptom of a failure.

 Component Replacement: Educated guesswork in

replacing components is sometimes effective.
 Signal Tracing: Look at the point in the circuit or
system where you first lose the signal or incorrect signal.

65
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(Troubleshooting Techniques)
Signal tracing techniques:

Input to output

Output to input

66
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(Fault Analysis)
Can be applied when you measure an incorrect voltage at a test point
using signal tracing and isolate the fault to a specific circuit.
Example 1:
Effect of an Open Diode in a Half-
Wave Rectifier:
- Zero o/p voltage
- Open diode breaks the current path from
transformer secondary winding to the
filter and load resistor – no load current.
Other faults: open transformer winding,
open fuse, or no input voltage.

67
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(Fault Analysis)

Example 2:
Effect of an Open Diode in a Full-Wave Rectifier:
-The effect of either of two diodes is open diode, the o/p voltage will have large
than normal ripple voltage at 60 Hz rather than at 120 Hz.
- Another fault – open in one of the halves of the transformer secondary winding.
- Open diode give same symptom to bridge full-wave rectifier.
(See Figure 2-63)

68
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(Fault Analysis)
Example 3:
Effect of a Shorted Diode in a Full-Wave Rectifier:
 Fuse should blow – cause by short circuit
 D1,D4 will probably burn open.

69
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(Fault Analysis)
Example 4:
Effect of a fault filter capacitor:
 Open – o/p is full-wave rectified voltage
 Shorted – the o/p is 0V
 Leaky – increase the ripple voltage on the o/p
Example 5:
Effect of a Faulty Transformer:
 Open primary/secondary winding of a
transformer – 0V o/p

70
 2-8 Troubleshooting (cont.)
(The complete Troubleshooting Process)

 The complete troubleshooting process:

(i) Identify the symptom(s).

(ii) Perform a power check
(iii) Perform a sensory check
(iv) Apply a signal tracing technique.
(v) Apply fault analysis
(vi) Use component replacement to fix the problem.

71
 Summary
 The basic function of a power supply to give us a smooth ripple
free DC voltage from an AC voltage.
Half-wave rectifiers only utilize half of the cycle to produce a DC
voltage.
Transformer Coupling allows voltage manipulation through its
windings ratio
Full-Wave rectifiers efficiently make use of the whole cycle. This
makes it easier to filter.
The full-wave bridge rectifier allows use of the full secondary
winding output whereas the center-tapped full wave uses only
half.
Filtering and Regulating the output of a rectifier helps
keep the DC voltage smooth and accurate
72
 Summary
Limiters are used to set the output peak(s) to a given
value.
Clampers are used to add a DC voltage to an AC voltage.
Voltage Multipliers allow a doubling, tripling, or
quadrupling of rectified DC voltage for low current
applications.
The Data Sheet gives us useful information and
characteristics of device for use in replacement or designing
circuits.
Troubleshooting requires use of common sense along
with proper troubleshooting techniques to effectively
determine the point of failure in a defective circuit or
system.
73
Solution 2:
The peak output voltage for the circuit is:
Vp(out) = Vp(in) – 0.7V = 5 – 0.7 = 4.30 V

74
Solution 3:

Vp(pri) = Vp(in) = 156 V

The peak secondary voltage is:

Vp(sec) = nVp(pri) = 0.5 (156 V) = 78 V

The rectified peak output voltage is:

Vp(out) = Vp(sec) – 0.7V = 78 – 0.7 = 77.3 V

where Vp(sec) is the input to the rectifier.

75
Solution 5:
1.

+6.7V

-6.7V

76
Solution 5 (cont.):
2.
 R3   220 
VBIAS   VSUPPLY   15V
 R2  R3   100  220 
 10.31V

+10.31V

-10.31V

77