|






In this chapter we will start the discussion on wave
phenomena. We will study the following topics:
Types of waves
Amplitude, phase, frequency, period, propagation speed of a wave
Mechanical waves propagating along a stretched string
Wave equation
Principle of superposition of waves
Wave interference
Standing waves, resonance

 
A á
 is defined as a disturbance that is self-sustained and
propagates in space with a constant speed
Waves can be classified in the following three categories:



á
 These involve motions that are governed by
Newton¶s laws and can exist only within a material medium such as
air, water, rock, etc. Common examples are: sound waves, seismic
waves, etc.


á
 These waves involve propagating
disturbances in the electric and magnetic field governed by Maxwell¶s
equations. They do not require a material medium in which to
propagate but they travel through vacuum. Common examples are:
radio waves of all types, visible, infra-red, and ultra-violet light, x-
rays, gamma rays. All electromagnetic waves propagate in vacuum
with the same speed @ º 300,000 km/s
Ñ
á
 All microscopic particles such as electrons,
protons, neutrons, atoms etc have a wave associated with them
governed by Schroedinger¶s equation.  
 






á
  Ñ
Waves can be divided into the following two categories
depending on the orientation of the disturbance with
r
respect to the wave propagation velocity  .

If the disturbance associated with a particular wave is

perpendicular to the wave propagation velocity, this
wave is called "V
 ". An example is given
in the upper figure which depicts a mechanical wave
that propagates along a string. The movement of each
particle on the string is along the j -axis; the wave itself
propagates along the -axis.
A wave in which the associated disturbance is parallel to the wave propagation
velocity is known as a "R V
R

". An example of such a wave is given
in the lower figure. It is produced by a piston oscillating in a tube filled with
air. The resulting wave involves movement of the air molecules along the
r
axis of the tube which is also the direction of the wave propagation velocity  .
 
|onsider the transverse ave propagating along
the string as sho n in the igure. The position o
any point on the string can be described by a
unction j  
( ,  ). Further along the chapter
e shall see that unction
has to have a speci ic
orm to describe a ave. Once such suitable
unction is: j ( ,  )   j! sin  - ü

uch a ave hich is described by a sine
(or a cosine) unction is kno n as
"Y


".
The various terms that appear in the expression
or a harmonic aveare identi ied in the lo er igure
Function j ( ,  ) depends on and  . There are t o
ays to visualize it. The irst is to " reeze" time
(i.e. set    
). This is like taking a snapshot o the
ave at    
. j   j , 

The second is to set
 
. In this case j   j
,  .

  j ( ,  )  j! sin 
ü

The
 j! is the absolute value of the
maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position.
The 
 is defined as the argument 
ü

of the sine function.
Theá

 is the shortest distance
between two repetitions of the wave at
a fixed time.

We ix  at    0. We have the condition: j ( à ,0)   j ( à  ï , 0) 

j! sin  à
  j! sin   à  ï
   j! sin  à   ï

2
ince the sine unction is periodic ith period 2   ï   2    
ï
?  is the time it takes ( ith ix ed ) tthe sine unction to complete
one oscillation. We take   0  j (0,  )   j (0,    ) 
2
 j! sin ü 
   j! sin ü   
    j! sin ü   ü
 ü   2  ü  

  ü
  


á

 In the figure we show two snapshots of a harmonic wave
taken at times  and  6  . During the time interval 
the wave has traveled a distance . The wave speed

 . ne method of finding  is to imagine that


we move with the same speed along the -axis. In this
case the wave will seem to us that it does not change.

Since j ( ,  )  j! sin 
ü 
this means that the argument of the sine function
is constant. 
ü  constant. We take the derivative with respect to  .
  ü  ü

ü  0   The speed   
    
A harmonic wave that propagates along the

 -axis is described by the equation:
j ( ,  )  j! sin  6 ü
. The function j ( ,  ) 

ü
describes a general wave that
propagates along the positive -axis. A general wave that propagates along the


 -axis is described by the equation: j ( ,  ) 
 6 ü

 u
?  
   
V
Oelo e ill determine the speed o a ave that
propagates along a string hose linear mass density
is V. The tension on the string is equal to .
|onsider a small section o the string o length ðl .

The shape o the element can be approximated to be an arc o a circle o radius R

hose center is at O. The net orce in the direction o O is r   2 sin

.
ðl ðl
Here e assume that
= à  sin
;
  r  !
2
2 2
The orce is also given by e ton's second la : r   ð! " Vðl
!

2 ðl
I e compare equations à and 2 e get: Vðl
   
V
# $ The speed  depends on the tension and the mass density V
but not on the ave requency ˜ .  %
 D
  &
  '
|onsider a transverse ave propagating along a string
hich is described by the equation:
j ( ,  )   j! sin  - ü
. The transverse velocity
j
    -ü j! cos  - ü
t point a both

j and  are equal to zero. t point b both j and 
have maxima.
à
In general the kinetic energy o an element o mass ! is given by:
  ! 2
2
à
à 

 The rate at hich konetic energy propagates
2

    -ü j ! cos  - ü  
22 

à
along the string is equal to   V ü 2 j!2 cos 2  - ü
The average rate
 2

 à à
   V ü 2 2
j !

 cos 2
 - ü 

   V ü 2 2
j! s in the case o the oscillating
   2  4






 à
spring-mass system              V ü 2 2
j!
            2
 á
 

 (
2 j à 2 j
  2 2 Consider a string of mass density V and tension
 2
 
A transverse wave propagates along the string.
The transverse motion is described by j ( ,  )
Consider an element of length  and mass !  V 
The forces à  2 
the net force along the y-axis is given by the equation:
j
  2 sin 2
à sin à  sin 2
sin à
ere we

j 
assume that à º à and 2 º à  sin à ; tan à  
l  à

j  
j 
j  
and sin 2 ; tan 2    j
  
 
 2   2  à 

2 j 
j 
j  
From e ton's second la e have: rj
   ! j   V       
 2
  2  à 

j 
j 

j 
j    
2 j   2  à 2 j V 2 j à 2 j
      V    2     2 2
  2  à      
2 2
 ( ,  )   jà ( ,  )  j2 ( ,  )
ji
a ? ?  ??  )

2 j V 2 j à 2 j
The ave equation 2     2 2 even though
  2
 
it as derived or a transverse ave propagating along
a string under tension, is true or all types o aves.
This equation is "linear" hich means that i jà and
j2 are solutions o the ave equation, the unction
@à jà  @2 j2 is also a solution. Here @à and @2 are constants.
The principle o superposition is a direct consequence
o the linearity o the ave equation. This principle
can be expressed as ollo s:

Consider t o aves o the same type that overlap at some point P in space.
Assume that the unctions jà ( , ) and j2 ( , ) describe the displacements
i the ave arrived at P alone. The displacement at P when both waves
are present is given by: ji
( ,  )  jà ( ,  ) 6 j2 ( ,  )
4 $ verlapping waves do not in any way alter the travel of each other  *
  2    )

|onsider t o harmonic aves o the same amplitude
and requency hich propagate along the x-axis. The
t o aves have a phase di erence š . We
ill combine these aves using the principle o
superposition. The phenomenon o combing aves
is kn on as     and the t o aves are
said to   . The displacement o the t o aves
are given by the unctions: jà ( , )   j! sin   ü

and j2 ( ,  )   j! sin   ü   š
. ji
  jà  j2
ji , 
  j! sin   ü 
 j! sin   ü   š

 š
š
j , 
   2 j! cos  sin    ü 
i
 2  2
The resulting ave has the same requency as
the original aves, and its amplitude
š š
j!i  2 j! cos Its phase is equal to
2 2
 

|     

The amplitude o t o intere ering aves is given by:
š
j!i  2 j! cos It has its maximum value i š   0
2
In this case j!i  2 j!
The displacement o the resulting ave is:

š
ji , 
  2 j! sin    ü 
 2
This phenomenon is kno n as
˜


 V V
V ˜ 
 Ñ


 

The amplitude of two interefering waves is given by:
š
j!i 2 j! cos It has its minimum value if š 
2
In this case j!i 0
The displacement of the resulting wave is:
ji , 
 0
This phenomenon is known as
˜RR
V V
V ˜ 
 
2


 

The amplitude of two interefering waves is given by:
š
j!i 2 j! cos When interference is neither fully
2
constructive nor fully destructive it is called
V 
V
V ˜ 
2
An example is given in the figure for š 
3
In this case j!i j!
The displacement of the resulting wave is:


ji , 
  j! sin  
ü 6
 3
4 $ Sometimes the phase difference is
expressed as a difference in wavelength
In this case remembre that:
2 radians  à
 ï

phasor is a method or representing a ave hose
diasplacement is: jà , 
  j!à sin   ü

The phasor is de ined as a vector ith the ollo ing
properties:
Its magnitude is equal to the ave's amplitude j!à
 The phasor has its tail at the origin O and rotates in
the clock ise direction about an axis through O
ith angular speed ü .
Thus de ined, the projection o the phasor on the j -axis
(i.e. its y-component) is equal to j!à sin   ü

phasor diagram can be used to represent more than one
  aves. (see ig.b). The displacement o the second ave is:
j2 , 
  j! 2 sin   ü  š
The phasor o the second
ave orms an angle š ith the phasor o the irst ave
indicating that it lags behind ave à by a phase angle š .
 u

   ?

|onsider t o aves that have the same requency
but di erent amplitudes. They also have a phase
di erence š . The displacements o the t o aves
are: jà , 
  j!à sin   ü 
and
j2 , 
  j! 2 sin   ü  š
. The superposition o the t o
aves yields a ave that has the sameangular requency ü
  j!isin   ü  

Here j!iis the
and is described by: ji
ave amplitude and
is the phase angle.
To determine j!iand

e add the t o phasors representing the aves as vectors
(see ig.c).
  ote: The phasor mathod can be used to add vectors that
have di erent amplitudes.
ji , 
  2 j! sin  cos ü 



 u
 $ |onsider the superposition o t o aves that have the same
requency and amplitude but travel in opposite directions. The displacements
o t o aves are: jà , 
  j! sin   ü
, j2 , 
  j! sin   ü

The displacement o the resulting ave ji , 
  jà , 
 j2 ,

ji , 
  j! sin   ü
 j! sin   ü
  2 j! sin  cos ü 
This is not a traveling ave but an oscillation that has a position
dependent amplitude. It is kno n as a V



 %
 The displacement o a standing ave is given by the equation:
ji , 
  2 j! sin  cos ü 
The position dependant amplitude is equal to 2j! sin 

#
 $ These are de ined as positions here the standing

ave amplitude vanishes. They occur hen      0,à, 2,

2 ï

        0,à, 2,...
ï 2

r  
 $ These are de ined as positions here the standing

ave amplitude is maximum.

à
They occur hen        0,à, 2,...
 2
 ' 2
à
àï
      i      0,à, 2,...
ï  2  2 2
# $ The distance bet een ajacent nodes and antinodes is ï /2
# $ The distance bet een a node and an ajacent antinode is ï /4
  ( 


á






Consider a string under tension on which is clamped
+ , at points A and B separated by a sistance . We send
a harmonic wave traveling the thr right. the wave is
reflected at point B and the reflected wave travels to
+ , the left. The left going wave reflects back at point A
and creates a thrird wave traveling to the right. Thus
we have a large number of overlapping waves half
+ of which travel to the right and the rest to the left.
,

or certain frequencies the interference produces a standing wave. Such a

standing wave is said to be



. The frequencis at which the standing
wave occurs are known as the 


  
 of the system.
  * Desonances occur when the resulting standing wave
satisfies the boundary condition of the problem.
+ , These are that the Amplitude must be zero at point A
and point B and arise from the fact that the string is
clamped at both points and therefore cannot move.
The first resonance is shown in fig.a. The standing
+ ,
à
wave has two nodes at points A and B. Thus  
2
 à  2 . The second standing wave is shown
+ , in fig.b. It has three nodes (two of them at A and B)


In this case   2    2 
2

The third standing wave is shown in fig.c. It has four nodes (two of them at A and B)

 2
In this case   3    3   The general expression for the resonant
2 3
2  
wavelengths is:   à, 2,3, ... the resonant frequencies ˜  
2