Lecture 2 Radiation and Atom

Resident Physics Lecture
Radiation Physics
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD
School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
Intended Learning Outcomes
 At the end of this lecture, the student is expected to:
 Define radiation.
 Describe electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
 Describe the wave-particle duality of EM radiation.
 Make simple calculation of energy, frequency, wavelength of EM
radiation.
 Define electrovolt (eV) as energy unit of EM radiation.
2 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

Introduction
 Radiation used radiology are:
 X-rays,
 Gamma rays,
 Magnetic field and RF signals and
 Sound.
 Note that
 These radiation must penetrate & interact with the body
tissue to produce images.

Energy and Matter
 Two important quantities in medical imaging are:
 Matter
o Is characteristic of the patient body, and
o Has definite size, shape and form (solid, liquid or gas).
 Energy
o Characteristic of the radiation used for imaging, and
o Exists in different forms.

Energy and Matter
 Note that
 Matter and energy are related, i.e.
 One can be converted into the other.
 Energy
 Make objects in the universe either visible or invisible, and
 Light is what make things to be visible to our eyes, and is usually
referred as visible light, i.e. perceived by our eye.

Matter
 Matter
 Has mass (weight) and volume (occupy space), and
 Consists smallest particles called the atoms, and
 A combination of two or more atoms

 When 2 or more atoms are combined, they form a molecule, and
 A molecule also refers to smallest building block of some gases,
e.g. diatomic -H2, O2, N2 and multi-atomic, e.g. CH4.

Matter
 Matter
 Is characterized by the mass, which in turn
 Is composed of smallest units called the atoms.
 A combination of two or more atoms

 Is called a molecule,
 Which is sometimes used as the smallest unit of mass for some
substances, especially gases which exists as diatomic, e.g. H2, O2,

N2 or multi-atomic, e.g CH4.
Matter
 An atom
 Can be further subdivided into three smaller particles called
subatomic particles, which

 Are electron (e), proton (p) and neutrons (n).
 Note that
 The subatomic particles are extremely small such that
convectional units of mass are too large to express their masses.

Matter
 The units of mass, i.e. kilogram (kg) or gram (g)
 Are too large when used to measure masses of subatomic
particles, hence
 Smaller unit is defined to measure mass at the subatomic
level, which is called atomic mass unit (amu), defined as:
1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg = 1.66 × 10−24 g

Matter
 Using amu unit, the masses of subatomic substances are:
 Mass of a proton, mp = 1.00783 amu
 Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.00866 amu
 Mass of an electron, me = 0.00055 amu
 Notice that
 An electron is very light compared to proton or neutron, and
 Mass of proton  mass of neutron.

Energy
 Energy
 Is defined as the capacity to do work and
 There are different forms of energy:
o Chemical- ability of a substance to undergo transformation,
o Kinetic – energy due to motion of an object,
o Potential – energy due to position of an object in a force field,
o Binding – energy holding particles or atoms/molecules of an object
together,
o Nuclear – energy released when nucleus disintegrate or breaks.

Relation btw energy and mass
 Mass and energy are related by Einstein equation:
E = mc2
 where E is energy in Joules (J), m is the mass in kilograms (kg),
and c is the velocity of light in a vacuum given as 3 × 108 m/s.
 The Einstein equation above
 States that everything around us can be classified as either matter
or energy.

Kinetic & Potential Energy
 Kinetic Energy
 Energy of an object by virtue of its speed:
1
K .E  m 2
2
o m = mass (kg)
o v = velocity (m/s)
 Potential Energy
 Energy of an object by virtue of its
position:
P.E  mgh

Energy Conservation Law
 Both energy and mass are conserved quantities:
 Both energy and mass cannot be created nor destroyed
 Energy conservation law

 States that energy can’t be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one
form to another.
 Mathematically,
 It states that the sum of K.E and P.E is constant:
E = K.E + P.E
 Einstein equation is also mathematical form of energy conservation

Radiation
 Radiation
 Is a name given to energy that is able to travel thro’ space or matter,
and
 This radiation is always around us –natural or man made!
 Radiation sources can be

 A collections of matter
o Store energy within them e.g. sun or radioactive material.
 A device that convert other forms of energy into radiation

o e.g. a bulb converts electrical energy into light, x-ray tube convert electricity to x-
rays etc.

Types of Radiation
 Two types of radiation is used
in diagnostic imaging:
 Electromagnetic (EM)
radiation
o e.g. radio waves, visible light,
heat, X- and  rays
 Particles radiation
o e.g. beta, neutrons, alpha
and protons.

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation
 EM radiation is now accepted as having dual character:
 It behaves both as a wave and a particle which is
 Usually referred as wave-particle duality, and
 Physicist use whichever form that describes experimental

observation well.
 EM radiation
 Travels with the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.0 x 108 m/s.

EM radiation - Photon
 As a particle,
 EM radiation is thought of as consisting of little energy packets, which is

called a photon or a Quanta, and
 A photon can be emitted or absorbed when an atom or molecule move
from one level to another, i.e. change energy level and
 Each photon carries energy given by
E  h
 Where E is energy (J), h is plank’s constant (h = 6.62 x 10-34 Js) and 
is frequency (Hz).

EM radiation - Photon
 As a wave,
 EM radiation obeys wave equation, which relates its velocity (c),
wavelength () and frequency () as:
c  
 Where  is wavelength (m) and  is frequency of light (Hz).
 Hence, photon energy can be given also as:

hc
E  h

EM Radiation - Spectrum
 EM radiation consists of a family of radiation that
 Differ only in the amount of energy packaged in each photon.
 Examples are:
1. x-rays
2
1
2. Radio waves
3. Microwaves
3
4. Light 4

Properties of EM radiation
 EM radiation
 Has no mass,
 Is not deflected by either electrical or magnetic fields,
 Propagates through matter as well as vacuum and
 Has a constant speed in a given medium,
o Has maximum speed in vacuum of 3.0 x 108 m/s and
o Its speed is a function of transport characteristics in other mediums.

c

n
o Where n is called index of reflection of the substance.

Properties of EM radiation
 EM radiation
 Travel in straight lines but their trajectories can be altered when
they interact with matter.
 This interaction can occur either by
 Absorption - removal of the photon completely from the beam, or
 Scattering – the photon change direction of its trajectory.

EM Spectrum
 EM radiation
 Consists of a family of radiation called EM spectrum, as shown
in Fig. below.

EM Spectrum

EM Spectrum
 EM radiation used in diagnostic imaging include:
 -rays
o Are produced at the nucleus of a radioactive atom and
o Are used in nuclear medicine for imaging and therapy.
 x-rays
o Are produced at orbits or outside the nucleus of an atom and
o Are used in radiography modalities.

EM Spectrum
 Visible light
 Used to detect x- and -rays in an image receptor (IR), and
 Also for examining and interpreting medical images.
 Radiofrequency (RF) radiation
 Used for exciting the Pt. magnetization and also receiving signals
emitted by the relaxing excited magnetization in MRI.
 Note that
 Both x- and  rays are ionizing radiation but light and RF are non-
ionizing radiation.
Nature of EM radiation
 EM radiation
 Has dual nature - acts like particles or
waves, called wave-particle duality.
 The particle nature explains
 Radiation interaction with matter.
 Wave concepts explains
 Refraction; diffraction and
polarization.

Wave Characteristic
 Waves
 Can be mechanical or electromagnetic and
 Are characterized by amplitude (A), wavelength (), frequency (v), and
period (T).
o A (m) – gives intensity or energy of the wave (E  A2).
o  (m) - distance between any two identical points on adjacent cycles.
o T (s) - time required to make one complete cycle.
o  (Hz) - number of complete cycles per second

Wave Nature

Wave Nature
 Typical wavelengths of x- and  rays
 Are in nanometers (nm) range (i.e. very very short),
 Where 1 nm = 10-9 m =0.000 000 001 m .
 Frequency is related to period by

1

T
 Frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz),
 where 1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec = 1 s-1.

Wave Nature
 EM radiation
 Propagates as a pair electric E and magnetic, B fields, as shown in Fig. below, and
 Notice that E- and B fields are  to each other and direction of travel.
Electric field
Magnetic field

Worked Example
 Question:
 Find the frequency and energy of the blue light with  = 400
nm.
 Solution: From the wave equation, we make the frequency
the subject to get
3.0 10 8
c
   7.5  1014
Hz
 400 10 9
hc
E  h   6.62 10 34  7.5 1014  4.97 10 19 J

4.97 1019 J
E 19
 3.1eV
1.6 10 C

Worked Example
 Question:
 Sound waves are disturbances in the air and travel at a velocity
of 344 m/s. The middle C-note has a frequency of 264 Hz.
Calculate the wavelength of this note.
 Solution
 344
   1.3
 264

Particle Radiation
 Particle radiation
 Are used in NM for therapy and
 These radiation are characterized by mass and electric charge, except

neutrons, which have zero charge and
 Their velocities depends on their kinetic energies.
 The source of these particles are:

 Radioactive decay,
 Cosmic rays, and
 Nuclear reactors, etc.

Particle Radiation
 Particle radiation used in medical imaging are produced
artificially using three common methods:

 Nuclear reactors,
 Particle accelerators ( linear or cyclotron) and
 Generators.
 A common type of particle radiation used mainly in NM
 Is the beta particle,
 Which is a fast moving electron.

Particle Radiation
 Note that
 Particle radiation are not used for imaging because of their low
penetration in the body tissues, and

 Are also produced when x- and  rays interact with matter, and
 The process is called ionization, and is the reason why x- and 
rays are referred to as ionizing radiation, and

 Is also the processes thro’ which these radiation cause harm to the
living trusses.
,  and Energy of EM Spectrum
Highest wavelength = lowest frequency
Radio
Infrared
Visible light
Ultraviolet
Soft x-rays
Diagnostic x-rays
Therapeutic x-rays & gammas
Lowest wavelength = highest frequency
Velocity = Wavelength X Frequency

c=x
Photon Energy
 Energy of an EM photon
 Is usually calculated by using a simplified Eq. derived by
substituting values of h = 6.625 × 10−34 Js, and c = 3 × 108

m/s into the energy equation:
hc 1.24
E E (keV) 
 (nm )

 Notice the units used in this equation!

SI Unit of Energy - Joule (J)
 The SI unit of energy
 Is the joule (J) and
 Is a very large unit of energy when used to express energy of
radiation used in radiology, and

 For this reason a smaller unit is defined and used to measure
energies used in radiology, and

 This unit called an electronvolt and is denoted as ‘eV’.

Unit of Photon Energy - eV
 The electronvolt (eV)
 Is defined as the kinetic energy acquired by an electron when it is
accelerated by a potential difference of 1Volt (V), i.e.
E  qV
o Where q is electronic charge (C), and V is voltage (V).
 Substituting for electron charge, = 1.6 x 10-19 C and V = 1 V,
the electronvolt (eV) is given as:

E  qV  1.602 10-19 C x 1 V 1eV  1.602  10-19 J
Unit of Photon Energy - eV
 The unit eV
 Is the smallest energy unit used to express photon energy in
radiology together with its multiples:

o 1 keV = 1000 eV = 103 eV.
o 1 MeV = 1000 000 eV = 106 eV.
 Typical medical energies of x- and  rays photons
 Range from 15 keV (for mammography) to several hundred keV
for other radiographic techniques.

Ionizing and non-ionizing Radiation
 Radiation is further divided into
 Ionizing radiation
o Are radiation with enough energy to strip electron (i.e. ionize atoms)
from atoms when they interact and
o Examples are x- and -rays, UV and fast moving particles.
 Non-ionizing radiation.
o Are radiation without enough energy to strip electrons from atoms and
o Examples are microwaves, and visible light.

Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation
Region of ionizing radiation
Non-ionizing radiation

Ionization
 Ionization
 Removes bound electrons from atomic shells, and
 Hence, producing ionized atoms/molecules, i.e. with net charge.
 The threshold energy for ionization
 Depend on the substance,
 e.g. the minimum energies necessary to remove an electron
(referred to as the ionization potential) from H20 and C6H are 12.6
and 9.3 eV, respectively.

Worked Examples
In the electromagnetic spectrum, which of the following has

the highest frequency?
a. radio waves
b. ultra violet rays
c. visible light
d. infra red rays
e. Gamma rays

Worked example
 Photon energy _________ wavelength.
a. is directly proportional to
b. is inversely proportional to
c. does not depend on
d. increases (but not proportionally) with
e. decreases (but not proportionally) with
 The relationship between photon speed c, wavelength  and the

frequency v is:
a. c =  .v
b. v = c . .
c. =v/c
d. =v/c
e. None of the above

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Resident Physics Lecture

Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD

 Describe electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.

 Describe the wave-particle duality of EM radiation.

 Make simple calculation of energy, frequency, wavelength of EM

2 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Magnetic field and RF signals and

 These radiation must penetrate & interact with the body

tissue to produce images.

o Is characteristic of the patient body, and

o Has definite size, shape and form (solid, liquid or gas).

o Characteristic of the radiation used for imaging, and

o Exists in different forms.

4 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Matter and energy are related, i.e.

 One can be converted into the other.

 Make objects in the universe either visible or invisible, and

 Light is what make things to be visible to our eyes, and is usually

referred as visible light, i.e. perceived by our eye.

5 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Has mass (weight) and volume (occupy space), and

 Consists smallest particles called the atoms, and

 A combination of two or more atoms

 A molecule also refers to smallest building block of some gases,

e.g. diatomic -H2, O2, N2 and multi-atomic, e.g. CH4.

6 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Is characterized by the mass, which in turn

 Is composed of smallest units called the atoms.

 A combination of two or more atoms

 Which is sometimes used as the smallest unit of mass for some

substances, especially gases which exists as diatomic, e.g. H2, O2,

 Can be further subdivided into three smaller particles called

subatomic particles, which

 The subatomic particles are extremely small such that

convectional units of mass are too large to express their masses.

8 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Are too large when used to measure masses of subatomic

 Smaller unit is defined to measure mass at the subatomic

level, which is called atomic mass unit (amu), defined as:

1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg = 1.66 × 10−24 g

9 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Mass of a proton, mp = 1.00783 amu

 Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.00866 amu

 Mass of an electron, me = 0.00055 amu

 An electron is very light compared to proton or neutron, and

 Mass of proton  mass of neutron.

10 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 There are different forms of energy:

o Chemical- ability of a substance to undergo transformation,

o Kinetic – energy due to motion of an object,

o Potential – energy due to position of an object in a force field,

o Binding – energy holding particles or atoms/molecules of an object

11 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

and c is the velocity of light in a vacuum given as 3 × 108 m/s.

 The Einstein equation above

 States that everything around us can be classified as either matter

12 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

13 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Energy conservation law

14 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

 Radiation sources can be

 A device that convert other forms of energy into radiation

15 RIB 810, 811 and 812 - Medical Physics 3/27/2017

heat, X- and  rays