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TRANSFORMER

PROTECTION
R.J. Phansalkar
R&D , C&S Electric
Objective & Contents

Objective

This presentation is to refresh the Transformer related


knowledge and understand the intricacies involved in
Transformer protection.

Contents
• Some basic things about transformers
• General things about Power Transformers.
• Reasons of Transformer Failures/Protection overview
• Discussions on different topics including Differential
Protection , Through Fault , Phasor Diagrams etc.
Some common Questions

• What is effect of Frequency on the transformer ?

• Why the core of the Transformer is Laminated ?

• What is the Transformer dot notations in PTs & CTs?

• What is inrush current of the transformer ?

• Why transformers explode ?

• What are Dy11 or Dy1connections ?


TYPICAL
TRANSFORMER

• Transformer is the highly


Transformer Action
efficient electric Machine which
changes the voltage level of
the power system and
transfers the electrical energy
from one voltage level to
another voltage level.
• The ratio of change in voltage
level is directly proportional to
the ratio of primary number of
turns and secondary number of
turns
Some Basic Things about Transformer

• Transformer changes the voltage level and the power


received by us from Generators pass through several
transformers.
• Two interesting questions
1 Why voltage level at which the power is consumed is different
in the developed and developing countries ?
2 Which parameter is same through out the power system ?

• Vector Diagram
No load current . Magnetizing current Im , Iw ,secondary
current , effect of secondary current on primary side etc
Transformer operation
Transformer Action

• Transformer
universal EMF equation
• If the flux in the core is
purely sinusoidal, the
relationship for either
winding between its rms
voltage Erms of the
winding , and the supply
frequency f, number of
turns N, core cross-
sectional a
• Erms=4.44 f B a N
Categorization of
Transformers
Types of
Transformers
• The transformers which need
Power Transformer protection are the transformers
used in the power system in
distribution and transmission
Current transformers CT network
• CTs and PTs are used to
measure the currents and
Potential Transformer PT voltages in the power system
and their purpose is entirely
different that the Power
Autotransformer (Variac) Transformers
• The basic principle of working
remains same for all types of
transformers
Power Transformer

Cut-away view of three- • Transformer inside


phase oil-cooled
transformer. The oil
reservoir is visible at
the top.
Radiative fins aid the
dissipation of heat.
Basic Functions of the Power Transformer

• To increase the voltage level to enable transfer


of power at high voltage there by reducing the
transmission losses.
• To reduce the voltage level to enable consume
power on the safe value
• To keep the power losses to minimum level.
• To ensure safe operation on normal and
overload conditions and also when abnormal
through faults occur.
Why Faults occur in the Transformers ?

• Load on power transformers


There has been constant increase in the load and the rate at which the
load js increasing and the rate at which transformers are
upgraded/replaced donot match in the developing countries.As a
result transformers get overstressed
• The Moisture
The increase in moisture in power transformers can be caused
by floods, leaky pipes, leaking roofs and water entering the
tanks through leaking bushings or fittings.
• Deterioration of Insulation Insulation deterioration is the
cause of failure over the past several years. The reasons why insulation
deteriorates are ,overload , heavy short circuit outside transformers and,
moisture .
Transformer Failures

Failures in transformers can be classified into


1. winding failures due to short circuits (turn-turn faults,
phase-phase faults, phase-ground, open winding)
2. Core faults (core insulation failure, shorted laminations)
3. Terminal failures (open leads, loose connections, short
circuits)
4. Tap changer failures (mechanical, electrical, short
circuit, overheating)
5. Abnormal operating conditions (overfluxing,
overloading, overvoltage)
6. External faults
Faults
• Transformer Faults can be classified into 3 types
1 Faults in the auxiliary equipment which is part of the
transformer.
 Transformer oil
 Gas Cushion
 Oil pumps and forced air fans
 Core and winding insulation

2 Faults in the Transformer winding and connections


 Faults between adjacent turns
 Faults between winding and ground
 Faults between primary and secondary
3 Overloads and external short circuits
What is the impact of Transformer Failure?

• The direct economic impact of repairing or


replacing the Transformer is Huge cost involved.
• The indirect economic impact due to production
loss
• The repair time or complete replacement time
are the factors which will decide the losses .
• The availability of back up power feed or
replacement of the transformer and the cost of
each option are other concerns.
0 20 40

Winding

Tap
Changer

Bushing

Terminal
board

Miscleneous
Failure statistics

East
Failure Statistics

Failure statistics
40 • Failure statistics over the last
35 several years show that winding
30 failure is the main reason of failure
25 followed by failure in Tap changer
20
15 and bushings
10
• Misclenious failures include core
5 Failures
0
failure failures during
Bushing
Windings
Tap Changers

transportation etc
Miscleneous
Terminal boards

• Power transformers are expected


to last 30 to 40 years. However it
is found that the average age
of power transformer is only 10
years.
Causes of Transformer Failures
1 Insulation Failures – 24 out of 94
Insulation failures is leading cause of failure.. This category excludes those failures
where there was evidence of a lightning or a line surge.
There are actually four factors that are responsible for insulation Deterioration:
proposes (heat),
oxidation,
acidity, and
moisture.
The average age of the transformers that failed due to insulation was 18 years
2 Design /Manufacturing Errors – 22 out of 94
This category includes conditions such as: loose or unsupported leads, loose blocking,
poor brazing, inadequate core insulation, inferior short circuit strength, and foreign
objects left in the tank. In this study, this is the second leading cause of transformer
failures.
3 Oil Contamination – 4 out of 94
This category pertains to those cases where oil contamination can be established as
the cause of the failure. This includes sludging and carbon tracking.
Causes of Transformer Failures
4 Overloading – 5 out of 94

This category pertains to those cases where actual overloading could be established as the cause
of the failure. It includes only those transformers that experienced a sustained load that exceeded
the nameplate capacity.
5 Fire /Explosion – 3 out of 94

This category pertains to those cases where a fire or explosion outside the transformer can be
established as the cause of the failure. This does not include internal failures that resulted in a fire
or explosion.
6 Line Surge – 4 out of 94

7 This category includes switching surges, voltage spikes, line faults/flashovers, and other T&D
abnormalities. This significant portion of transformer failures suggests that more attention should
be given to surge protection, or the adequacy of coil clamping and short circuit strength.
8 Maintenance /Operation 5 out of 94

Inadequate or improper maintenance and operation was a major cause of transformer failures,
when you include overloading, loose connections and moisture. This category includes
disconnected or improperly set controls, loss of coolant, accumulation of dirt & oil, and corrosion.
Inadequate maintenance has to bear the blame for not discovering incipient troubles when there
was ample time to correct it.
Causes of Transformer Failures
9 Flood – 2 out of 94

The flood category includes failures caused by inundation of the transformer due to man-made or
natural caused floods. It also includes mudslides.
10 Loose Connections – 6 out of 94
This category includes workmanship and maintenance in making electrical connections. One
problem is the improper mating of dissimilar metals, although this has decreased somewhat in
recent years. Another problem is improper torquing of bolted connections. Loose connections
could be included in the maintenance category, but we customarily report it separately.
11 Lightning - 3 out of 94
Lightning surges are considerably fewer in number than previous studies we have published.
Unless there is confirmation of a lightning strike, a surge type failure is categorized as “Line
Surge”.
12 Moisture 1 out of 94

The moisture category includes failures caused by leaky pipes, leaking roofs, water entering the
tanks through leaking bushings or fittings, and confirmed presence of moisture in the insulating oil.
Moisture could be included in the inadequate maintenance or the insulation failure category
above, but we customarily report it separately.
Transformer protection

• Transformer which our Relays protect are


mainly used in the LV and medium
voltage distribution network of the power
system.
• Three basic things of any protective system
1. Measure the parameter
2. Compare the parameter
3. Control the abnormal condition by activating
circuit breaker
• To measure the current of the power
Transformer we need CT.
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF CTs

• To reduce line current to a value which is suitable for


standard measuring instruments, relays ,meters etc.

• To isolate the measuring instruments, meters, relays etc.


from line voltage of an installation.
• To protect measuring instruments against short circuit
currents.
• To sense abnormalities in current and give current
signals to protective relays to isolate the defective
system.
Dot Convention

• It is common in transformer schematic symbols


for there to be a dot at the end of each coil within
a transformer, particularly for transformers with
multiple primary and secondary windings.

• The dots indicate the direction of each winding


relative to the others. Voltages at the dot end of
each winding are in phase; current flowing into
the dot end of a primary coil will result in current
flowing out of the dot end of a secondary coil.
Dot convention to denote the polarity of a transformer

If the primary voltage is +ve at the dotted end of the winding with respect to
the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be +ve at the dotted end
also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side
of the core.

If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of
secondary winding.
ANSI Device Numbers

Device Description Comment

24 Volts/Hz For overexcitation detection

27IL,27In Under Voltage IL line to line,In Line to


neutral
32 Power element Used to sense backfeed
through transformer
47 Negative sequence Voltage Unbalance
Over voltage measurement
49 Thermal

51P,51G,51Q Time Over current Phase,neutral and negative


phase sequemce current
50P,50,N,50G, Instantaneous Phase,neutral,ground,negati
50Q ve phase sequence
59IL,59In overvoltage

67 Directional OC
Device Description

86 Lockout Auxiliary Most transformer


trips are directed to
lockout relay
87P Phase differential

87N Restricted earth


Fault

87 U Unrestrained Trips when


differential magnitude is much
greater than the
maximum inrush
Main Objectives of the protective scheme
for Transformers
• There is no fix rule that the transformers above particular
capacity must have the comprehensive protection and
others can have simple protection.
• The objectives are
1 Minimize the losses
2 Maximize the up time
3 Minimize the loss of property
4 Minimize the possibility of threat to human life
• The damage done is directly proportional to the
square of the current and is directly proportional
to the time for which the fault current flows
Operating Challenge for Protection

The Challenge before the


protection scheme is

1 To maintain the security during CT saturation as a


result of external heavy short circuit faults .
2 Maintaining the sensitivity to detect low magnitude
internal faults
3 Remain immune to the inrush current which will be
mistaken as a fault
Through Fault

• This fault is outside the transformer however heavy fault


current shakes and heats the transformer winding.

• The longer the through fault lasts the greater the risk of
evolving it into an internal fault of the transformer.

• Fast clearing of external fault must be the part of the


transformer protection scheme
Conditions and Protection Philosophy

INTERNAL
• Winding Phase-Phase , Phase-Ground faults
Differential (87T),
overcurrent (51, 51N)
Restricted ground fault protection (87RGF)
• Winding inter-turn faults Differential (87T),
Buchholz relay,
Core insulation failure, shorted laminations
Differential (87T),
Buchholz relay,
sudden pressure relay
• Tank faults
Differential (87T),
Buchholz relay and tank-ground protection
• Over fluxing Volts/Hz (24)
EXTERNAL
• Overloads Thermal (49)OvervoltageOvervoltage (59)
• Overfluxing Volts/Hz (24)
• External system short circuitsTime overcurrent (51, 51G), Instantaneous overcurrent (50, 50G)
Transformer Inrush Current
• The transformer inrush current refers to the transient
exciting current resulting from a sudden change in the
exciting voltage
• The inrush occurs
1 at the instant of energisation
2 at the instant of clearing of external
fault(recovery inrush)
3 During the inrush period of another nearby
transformer (sympathetic inrush)
Transformer Energization

• Transformer energization resembles the condition of


internal fault. If no inhibiting mechanism is provided the
differential element will trip.
• The magnetizing inrush current has significant 2nd
harmonic content.The level of second harmonic current
is used to distinguish between inrush and a fault
condition.

• Harmonic analysis of typical magnetizing inrush current


Harmonic 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Amplitude 63% 26.8% 5.1% 4.1% 3.7% 2.4%
(%of fundamentals)
Energizing Inrush

• Energizing inrush is caused by remanence (i. e residual


flux )in the core and its magnitude depends on the point
in the voltage waveform at the instant of breaker
closing.
• If the instantaneous voltage at the instant of closing the
breaker calls for flux of the same polarity as of
remanence,the core will be driven to saturation creating
peak exciting current which exceeds 10times the rated
exciting current
Over Fluxing
• Over fluxing occurs because of the two reasons
1 over voltage
2 Low frequency
The transformer which is next to Generator will get
over fluxed during generator starting and
stopping.
Whenever the through Fault will be cleared there
will be sudden rise in the voltage which can
cause over fluxing
Overflux Protection

• Transformer over fluxing can be a result of


Over voltage
Low system frequency
• A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux
density in the transformer core. Above this design limit the eddy currents in
the core and nearby conductive components cause overheating which
within a very short time may cause severe damage. The magnetic flux in the
core is proportional to the voltage applied to the winding divided by the
impedance of the winding.
• The flux in the core increases with either increasing voltage or decreasing
frequency.
• During startup or shutdown of generator-connected transformers, or
following a load rejection, the transformer may experience an excessive
ratio of volts to hertz, that is, become overexcited.
• When a transformer core is overexcited, the core is operating in a non-
linear magnetic region, and creates harmonic components in the exciting
current. A significant amount of current at the 5th harmonic is characteristic
of over excitation
BUCHHOLZ RELAY

• Buchholz relays have been applied to large


power transformers since the 1940's.
• A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the
accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow
accumulation of gas or shut down the
transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the
transformer oil."
Fuses used for Transformer protection

• Fuses are economical,donot need maintenanceand


external power to clear the fault
• Transformers below 10MVA Fuses is the predominant
choice
• Fuses are not precise in their operating charecteristics.
• Fuses are subjected to gradual damage for through
faults eventually leading to unwanted tripping at lower
values of currents
• Fuses can clear faults faster than the circuit breakers
Effect of Frequency

• The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density


increases with frequency.

• Size can be reduced


By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be
physically more compact because a given core is able to
transfer more power without reaching saturation and
fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance.
Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power
supplies which reduce core and winding weight.
• Core loss increase with frequency.
• Winding impedence will increase with the increase in
frequency
Why Transformer explode ?
• Electrical Breaker opening time: the
best breaker technology trips in 50
milliseconds, far too late to prevent the
explosion, which occurs 10 to 50
milliseconds after the low impedance
fault Additionally, the tank pressure keeps
increasing after breaker opening
Transformer Faults

• Winding related faults


Phase –phase,  Differential 87T
 OC 51,51N
phase-ground,
 87 RGF
Interturn short circuit  87T

• Terminal faults
Open leads, loose
connections,
short circuit
Transformer Faults

• Core related faults  Overfluxig


Core insulation Failures,shorted volts/Hz24
Laminations
 Bucholz relay
• Tap Changer Faults
Mechanical,Electrical,Short
ckt,overheating

• Tank fault
Tank -ground
Factors leading to Possible errors
Why the relay can see wrong differential currents even
when there is no fault
1 Tap changing ratio
2 Errors in the CT measurement due to slight mismatch
in the CTs
3 Through fault of high value leading to CT saturation
and hence measurement error

To take care of these problems relay characteristic has two


slopes
Charecteristic of differential Relay
• There are two slopes in the 1. The objective of the first slope is to
charecteristics compensate differential currents due
to tap changer and due to errors in the
measurement CTs

2. The slope will be selected as to cover


CT´s relation errors and the error
produced by the change of transformer
nominal ratio due to the tap changer.
3. The recommended setting for .Ires1.
current is 0.3In taking into account that
as the setting is lower, the tendency to
trip is greater.
4. The recommended settings for the
slope are:
15% for standard transformers
25% for transformers with tap changer
40% for special applications
Charecteristic of differential Relay
Second slope
1. The objective of the second
slope is to protect itself against
saturation of measurement
transformers. When high
current faults happen outside
the transformer,measurement
CT saturation can make a false
differential current to appear
and this can cause false trips.
The recommended setting is 3
times the rated current.
2. The second slope will be set at
least at 60%. If differential
trips for external fault occur,
this setting may be raised till
100%.
What are interposing transformers ?

• The interposin CTs are used for Power transformer Differential


Protection circuit.
• In a delta/Star Power tranformer, the cts will be connected star and
delta formation, for eliminating Zero seqence current on star side.
• There will be mismatch of secondary current .
• To maintain equilibrium, interposing Cts will be connected to Delta
formed CTs.

• But now a days for numerical relays these interposing CTs are not
used and current mismatch is offset in software settings of numerical
relays.
Why interposing CTs are not required in
Microcontroller based Relays ?
• The vectors required for the comparison are
phase shifted and these can appropriately be
obtained from the scanned input data.
• 36 samples are taken thus each sample is 10
degree phase shifted from the previous sample.
Interposing CTs basically do the phase shifting
im steps of 30 degrees before electrical signals
are compared .It is easy to get the values of the
waveform at desired angles in microcontroller
employong desired logic in the software .
Transformer Vector groups ..…sailent points

• The Three phase transformer windings can be connected several ways.


Based on the windings' connection, the vector group of the transformer is
determined.

• The transformer vector group is indicated on the Name Plate of transformer


by the manufacturer.
The vector group indicates the phase difference between the primary and
secondary sides, introduced due to that particular configuration of
transformer windings connection.

• The Determination of vector group of transformers is very important before


connecting two or more transformers in parallel. If two transformers of
different vector groups are connected in parallel then phase difference exist
between the secondaries of the transformers and large circulating current
flows between the two transformers which is very detrimental.
Transformer configurations
• The Star connection is also called Wye as it resembles
the English letter 'Y'. As both the names Star and Wye are equally
used we have the freedom to use them interchangeably. Of course
some people also use the term 'Mesh' in place of 'Delta'. Let us first
consider the Wye - Delta type where three primary windings
are connected in Wye and the three secondary windings in De
• The three phase transformer primary and secondary windings are
mainly connected in the following ways

Wye - Wye (also called Star-Star)


Wye - Delta (also called Star-Delta)
Delta -Wye ( also called Delta-Star)
Delta - Delta

In addition there are 4 2 configurations auto and zigzag which are not
discussed
Explanation of Designations

Letter D is for delta connection


Letter Y is for Start connection
Letter in Capital denotes Primary
Letter for secondary will be small
Number denotes the clock position from which angle can be calculated

• Example Dy11 means primary side is in delta secondary side is in


star and phase angle between primary and secondary is 30 degree
(secondary leads primary by 30 degrees)
Yd1 means primary is in star secondary is in delta and secondary lags
primary by 30 degree
Dy7 means priomary delta secondary star and secondary leads primary
by 150 degrees
Points for understanding the different connection
Diagrams
• The windings A1A2 and a1a2 are wound on the same limb of core.
So also the other two sets of windings. (In case of 3-phase bank of
transformers the two windings correspond to same single phase
transformer).

• The primary and secondary windings on the same limb of the core
are shown with same color.

• The windings on Delta and Star sides are diagrammatically


rearranged in Delta and Star like shapes(according to connection)
respectively just to enhance learning.

• The voltage developed in the windings shown with same


color(placed on same limb of core) are in phase(or zero phase
displacement). Hence the corresponding phasors are drawn parallel
to each other.
Yd11 connection
In the phasor diagrams we have drawn
• Jj primary side voltage phasors A1A2, B1B2
and C1C2. As usual for three phase
system, these are the phasors displaced
120 degree from each other.Similarly in
the secondary side voltage phasors a1a2,
b1b2 and c1c2 are drawn. Observe that .
a1a2 is parallel to A1A2, b1b2 is
parallel to B1B2 and c1c2 is parallel to
C1C2. This is because a1a2 and A1 A2
are in phase (as they are wound on the
same limb of core).
Similarly b1b2 and B1B2 are in phase
and also c1c2 and C1C2 are in phase.
Yd 1
connection
Dy 1
connections
Yy0 and Yy6 connections
Features of the typical Transformer
protection relays
• Overload
• Short Circuit
• Differential
• Temperature
2nd and fifth Harmonics
• Whenever a transformer is energised, there
would be a high level of 2nd harmonics in the
current drawn by the transformer - due to very
high inrush current for magnetisation. This will
create a differential current of the order of 15%
• Whenever a transformer is over excited (very
high V/F ratio), the proportion of 5th harmonics
will reach highr levels than what it was at the
time of energisation. This can be equivalent to a
differential current of greater than 30% ..
2nd Harmonic restraint level 2H( 10% to
30%):
The relay will measure the 2nd harmonic content and
compare with the set point 2H. As long as the 2nd
harmonics level in the current is more than the set value
2H, it will be considered as an event related to
trasformer switch on, and the operation of the relay is
restrained. Consequently the relay will not trip during
transformer switch on, even if harmonics are present.
5th Harmonic restraint level 5H
(20 % to 40%):

• A transformer will reach an over excitation level under


following conditions:

a) when the load is thrown off suddenly (the primary


voltage will rise resulting in a temporary over voltage
condition)

b) when the frequency goes down


ANY QUERIES FROM AUDIANCE

THANKS

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