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“There is grandeur in this view of life…from so simpl

a beginning endless forms most beautiful


and most wonderful have been,
and are being, evolved.”
-Charles Darwin

CHAPTERS 4, 5, 8
UPDATED 2013 Development of the Biosphere
How Does the Sun Support Life?
 Lights and warms planet
 Powers cycling of matter
 Drive climate/weather—distributes
heated air and water

Photosynthesis: base of food chains/webs


Energy vs. Nutrient Flow
Graphic Representations of Energy
Transfer
Energy Pyramids Show:
Ecological Efficiency -the
percentage of energy
transferred to one trophic
level to the next
~90% per level
converted to heat

Other Pyramids Include:


-Biomass
-Numbers
Biomass & Ecological Efficiency
Primary Productivity of Ecosystems

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

 The rate at which producers  Equal to the production of


harness energy from the sun chemical energy – use of
and convert to biomass chemical energy
 Highest GPP on Earth:  Aka what is left over for
consumers
 Shallow marine
waterways/coral reefs  Highest NPP on Earth
 Upwellings  Shallow waters
 Rain forests
 Lowest GPP on Earth:
 Lowest NPP on Earth
 Deserts
 Open ocean**
 Open ocean  Tundra
 Desert
Ecological Succession
The gradual and predictable
change in species composition of
a given area.
 Primary succession: from
nothing (ex. volcanic island,
abandoned parking lot, newly
created pond)
 Secondary succession
reestablishment of a lost
community (ex. burned forest,
abandoned farmland, polluted
stream)
Sample Primary Succession
1. Bare rock colonized—
moss, lichen, bacteria
2. Weathered rock
becomes soil
3. Plants die creating
humus-grasses take
over
4. Shrubs overtake grass
5. Fast growing trees
dominant
6. Slower growing trees
dominate —CLIMAX
COMMUNITY
Sample Secondary Succession
Theory of Island Biogeography
(pg. 168 in textbook)
The Start of Life
Theories on Start of Life
 1. Organic molecules from space (1997, Australia)
 2. Formation of organic molecules within Earth—
volcanoes
 3. Hydrothermal Vents-chemosynthesis
 Inorganic nutrients reacting to form organic nutrients
 Miller & Urey 1950’s
Two Phases of Evolution
 1. Chemical Evolution: bio-polymers performed
chemical reactions needed to make protocells
Ex: chemosynthesis @ hydrothermal vents
CO2 + H2S organic nutrients
 2. Biological Evolution: anaerobic prokaryotes to
photosynthetic prokaryotes to aerobic prokaryotes
to eukaryotes to multi-cellular eukaryotes
Early Evolution Theory
Evidence of Evolution
a. Fossil record
b. Comparative
anatomy
c. Comparative
biochemicals-DNA
d. Comparative
embryology
Natural Selection Drives Evolution
 Adaptations to specific  Example: Peppered
environments needed for Moths during Industrial
survival Revolution
 Reproduction required to
pass on genes for
adaptations
 Changes in gene pool
driven by mutations,
immigration/emmigration
 Alleles increase/decrease
frequency based on
survival needs
DNA Mutations
 Think back to biology 1. Random mistakes---
and consider how during protein
mutations in DNA synthesis &/or DNA
occur…. replication
2. Mutagens
1. Chemicals
2. Radiation—UV/x-
rays
Concept of Natural Selection
 Natural selection is based on
three conditions:
 natural variability of a trait
within a population
 the trait is heritable
 the trait leads to differential
reproduction
 Lead’s to changes in
allelic frequency
 Best traits get passed on
and increase in
frequency within gene
pool
 Vice versa is also true
Types of Natural Selection
 Artificial: breeding
for certain traits
 Directional: one
extreme favored
 Stabilizing:
intermediate trait
favored
 Diversifying/Disruptive:
both extremes
favored
*Study the graphs that explain these types of natural selection*
Forms of Evolution
 Microevolution: small  Divergent: Darwin’s
genetic changes that finches
occur within a gene pool  Convergent: dolphins vs.
of a population sharks
 Ex: sparrows, bacteria  Co-evolution: flowers
resistance
and their pollinators
 Macroevolution: long-
term, large scale
changes
 Speciation occurs
 Extinction occurs
Increase in Biodiversity: Speciation
 Two species arise from  Geographic Isolation:
one barriers due to human
 The result of natural involvement, plates,
selection natural disasters
 Behavioral Isolation:
diurnal vs. nocturnal
 Reproductive/Genetic
Isolation: due to the
other two
Biodiversity

Types The Loss of…

a) Genetic a) Reduces availability


b) Species of ecosystem services
b) Decreases ability of
c) Ecological species, community,
d) Functional ecosystems to adapt
to changing
environmental
conditions
Roles of Organisms

Identify an example
of each:
a. Producer
b. Primary Consumer
c. Secondary
Consumer
d. Detrivore/
Decomposer
More Specific Roles
Niche: role of a species Generalists vs.
in an ecosystem Specialists
Competitive Exclusion  Can live in many

Principle: no 2 places, eats many


species can occupy the foods, high tolerance
same niche in an of conditions
ecosystem if resources  Lives in 1 habitat, eats
are limited few foods, low
tolerance range
Specialist species
with a narrow niche Generalist species with a broad niche
Identify the specific niche of
each organism. Decide if
each is a generalist or a
specialist.
Law of Tolerance: one or more physical/chemical factors that
affect an organisms existence, abundance and distribution in an
ecosystem
Symbiotic Relationships
Let’s brainstorm
examples of each of
the following:
 Mutualism

 Commensalism

 Parasitism

 Predator-Prey
Predator-Prey Curves
Do you remember…
•K = carrying capacity?
•Why are the prey
population #’s are so much
higher than predator?
•Negative or positive
feedback mechanism?
•Benefits of these
relationships?
Species Classifications
 Pioneer: the first to occupy an  Native: organisms that
ecosystem normally live/thrive in an
 moss, lichens, bacteria ecosystem
 Indicator: serve as early  Non-native/exotic/alien:
warnings to damage of a deliberately or accidentally
community introduced species
 birds, amphibians, trout  Can be beneficial to
humans—crops, hunting game
 Keystone: have a substantial
effect, disproportionate to  Can over-compete for
resources and crowd out
their numbers, on an native species
ecosystem
 Top predator, pollinators,
seed dispersers, decomposers,
mycchorizae
Keystone Species
Ecosystem Structure
 There are four major
characteristics to consider when
examining the structure of
ecosystems:
 physical appearance includes the
size and stratification of species
 niche structure is the number of
diversity of ecological niches
 species diversity or richness is the
number of species
 species abundance is the number
of individuals of each species
kelp bed Macrocystis pyrifera
Ecological Stability

 There are three aspects of stability in living


systems:
 inertia, or persistence, is the ability of a living system to
resist being disturbed or altered
 constancy is the ability of a living system (population) to
maintain a size within the limits imposed by available
resources
 resilience is the ability of a living system to recuperate
after an external disturbance
Human Impacts on Ecosystems
HIPPCO
 Habitat destruction or fragmentation
 Invasive species
 Population
 Pollution
 Climate Change
 Overharvesting
 Including: (where do each of these belong in the pneumonic device above?)
 simplifying natural ecosystems, creation of monocultures
 speeding genetic resistance among pest species and disease-causing
bacteria through overuse of pesticides
 eliminating some predators
 deliberately or accidentally introducing new species
 overharvesting potentially renewable resources
 interfering with the normal chemical cycling and energy flows
 hunting/poaching
 pollution/climate change
Decreasing Genetic Diversity

 Bottleneck Effect: population size is decreased—


causes a reduction in genetic variation
 Founder’s Effect: small numbers of one colony starts a
new one---not starting with wide genetic variety
Decrease in Biodiversity: Extinction
 Background Extinction:  Human involvement:
low rate of extinction as  Biologist Stuart Primm:
environmental conditions extinction rates
gradually change increased 100-1000 X
natural background rate
 Mass Extinction: 25- during 20th century
70% of species go
 Humans will take over
extinct surface of Earth and net
primary productivity
(NPP) forcing early
extinction of ~ ¼ of
current species
Types of Extinction
 Local: a species no
longer found in an area
it once inhabited

 Ecological: so few are


left it can no longer
fulfill its ecological role

 Biological: no longer
found anywhere on
Earth---its forever
Endangered Vs. Threatened
 Threatened Species:
abundant in its natural
range but numbers are
declining
 Endangered Species: so
few survivors it can
experience
ecological/biological
extinction
 Read purple box on
566 about vulnerability
Post Extinctions
 Adaptive Radiation: when new species evolve to
fill empty niches
 Takes ~ 5 million years to rebuild after mass
extinction
Conservation Biology
 Uses the best available  3 Principles:
science to preserve 1. Biodiversity is
ecosystems and species necessary to life
2. Humans should not
cause extinctions or
disrupt ecological
processes
3. Preserving biodiversity
requires the protection
of intact ecosystems
providing sufficient
habitats
Precautionary Principle
 When there is
scientific uncertainty
about potentially
serious harm from
chemicals or
technologies, decision
makers should act to
prevent harm to
humans & the
environment
Human Interaction
Preservation
 Restoration

 Conservation

What is the difference?


U.S. Laws
 CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of 1975
 Signed by 152 countries
 Lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded due to
endangered status
 Restricts trade of 29,000 other species due to threatened status
 Organisms benefitting: elephants, chimps, crocodiles
 Lacey Act of 1900
 Prohibits transporting dead/alive wild animals across state lines
without permit
 ESA: Endangered Species Act of 1973
 Illegal to import/trade any product of endangered species unless
for scientific purposes or to enhance their survival
First Law of Human Ecology

 The First Law of Human


Ecology, developed by
Garrett Hardin, states:
 Everything is connected to
everything else; we are
all in it together.

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