CHAPTER 12

DESIGN OF SIDE DITCHES AND

OTHER OPEN CHANNELS
12-3.1 The Manning Fomula

1.486𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐
V=
𝒏

V = mean velocity (ft/sec)

R = hydraulic radius (ft); this is equal to the area of the cross
section of flow (𝑓𝑡 2 ) divided by the wetted perimeter (ft)
S = slope of the channel (ft per foot)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient; typical values of n are
given in Table.
TABLE: VALUE OF MANNING’S ROUGHNESS
COEFFICIENT
In SI units: 𝑹𝟐/𝟑𝑺𝟏/𝟐
V=
𝒏
V = mean velocity (m/sec)
R = hydraulic radius (m); this is equal to the area of the cross
section of flow (𝑚2 ) divided by the wetted perimeter (m)
S = slope of the channel (m/m)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

Q = VA
Where Q = discharge (𝑓𝑡 3 /sec)
A = area of the flow cross section ((𝑓𝑡 2 )

In SI units, discharge, Q, is expressed in (𝑚3 /sec)

 12-3.2 ENERGY OF FLOW (9)

POTENTIAL ENERGY KINETIC ENERGY

Energy at given point is represented by the depth Energy is represented by
of water plus the elevation of the channel bottom the velocity head 𝑉 2 /2g ,
above some convenient datum plane, expressed ft (m)
in ft (m)
The energy (BERNOULLI) equation states that the total energy
(head) at one point in an open channel carrying a flow of water is
equal to the total energy (head) provided allowance is made for any
energy added to or taken from the system.
𝑽𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
ENERGY EQUATION 𝒅𝟏 + + 𝒁𝟏 − σ 𝑯𝑳 = 𝒅𝟐 + + 𝒁𝟏
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

d = depth of flow, ft (m)

𝑉22
= velocity head or kinetic enrgy, ft m
2𝑔
Z = elevation of channel bottom, ft (m)
σ 𝐻𝐿 = summation of head losses, ft (m)
CHANNEL CHART
1V:2Hb = 4ft
12-3.3 DESING PROCEDURE

• Design is usually based on the assumption of uniform flow

because the error involved is relative slight in most cases.

The design of highway drainage channel is done in two parts:

1. The first part involves the selection of a channel section

that will carry the given discharge on the available slope.

2. The second part is the determination of the protection

required (if any) to prevent erosion of the drainage channel.
12-3.4 PREVENTION OF EROSION IN DRAINAGE
CHANNELS

• Erosion of highway drainage channel may unsightly and

hazardous ditches, cause pollution of nearby and streams and
increase maintenance cost of drainage structures of
sedimentation.
 RIGID LININGS
• Cast in place concrete
• Soil cement
• Fabric form work systems for concrete
• Grouted riprap

FLEXIBLE LININGS
• Rock riprap
• Wire enclosed riprap (gabions)
• Vegetative lining
• Geotextile fabrics

TEMPORARY LININGS are recommended to protect seeded channel until

vegetation has been estbllished.
The Federal Highway Administration recommends a vertical
freeboard height of 0.5 ft (150 mm) for small drainage channel.
For large channel may have to considered when establishing
freeboard requirements.

• COMPUTED SHEAR STRESS is a function of flow depth.

• CHANNEL SLOPES is one or the major parameters affecting

the computed shear stress, and it is usually fixed and the same as
the road profile.
12-4 DESIGN CULVERTS

CULVERT is usually, although not always, differentiate

from the bridge by virtue of the fact that the top of the culvert
does not form part of the travelled roadway.

20 ft or less – CULVERT more than 20 ft – BRIDGES

TYPES OF CULVERTS

PIPE CULVERT PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS

BOX CULVERTS
 METAL BOX CULVERT

ARCH CULVERT
• PIPE CULVERT –most common types of culvert due to
competitive price and easy installation.

• PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS (SINGLE OR MULTIPLE) -

arch culverts are suitable for large waterway opening
where fishes can be provided with a greater hydraulic
advantage.
- They provide low clearance and are definitely, much artistic.
- Particularly useful for sites where headroom is limited and also
have a hydraulic advantage at low flows
• BOX CULVERT – are made up of concrete and especially,
RCC (Reinforce Concrete).
- The most challenging part constructing a box culvert is that
dry surface is needed for installing it.

• METAL BOX CULVERT – economic alternative of the

bridge. These bridges are manufactured from the standard
structural plate or deep-corrugated structural plate. They are
the perfect bridge replacement maintaining the same road
grade level.
• BRIDGE CULVERT – serve a dual purpose. It acts, both
bridge and a culvert.
- Rectangular shape, bridge culverts are constructed on
rivers and canals.
- Foundation is laid under the ground level and pavement
surface is laid on top of the series of culverts.
- “multi-purpose culvert”
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF CULVERTS
- The purpose of hydraulic design is to provide a damage facility or
system that will adequately and economically provided for the
estimated flow throughout the design

TYPES OF CULVERT LOW

Depends on the total energy available between the inlet and outlet..
HIGHWAY CULVERTS ARE OPERATED WITH TWO
MAJOR TYPES OF CONTROL

INLET CONTROL OUTLET CONTROL

- commonly occurs when
-if the water can flow into
the slope of the culverts is steep
culvert faster than it can flow
and the outlet is not submerged.
through and out, then it is under
- if water can flow through
OUTLET CONTROL.
and out the culvert faster than it
can enter, the culverts is under
INLET CONTROL.
INLETS AND OUTLETS CONTROL
CONVENTIONAL U.S. UNITS
H = [1 + 𝐾𝑒 + (29𝑛2 𝐿)/( 𝑅4/3 )]( 𝑉 2 /2𝑔)

METRIC (SI) UNITS:

H = [1 + 𝐾𝑒 + (19.6𝑛2 𝐿)/( 𝑅4/3 )]( 𝑉 2 /2𝑔)

Where H = difference in elevation between the headwater and tailwater surface,

or between the headwater surface and the crown of the culverts at the outlet
𝐾𝑒 = entrance loss coefficeint
n = Mannng’s roughness coefficeint
L = length of culvert, ft (m)
R = hydraulic radius = area wetted perimeter, ft (m)
V = velocity, ft/sec (m/sec)
g = gravity constant, 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (9.8𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )
Entrance Loss Coefficients
• BEVELED-EDGED INLET – is the least sophisticated inlet
improvement and the least expensive.

• SIDE-TAPPERED INLET – increase hydraulic efficiency by

further reducing the contraction at the inlet control section.
The face section is designed to be large enough so as to not
restrict the flow. The roof and floor of the inlet are straight-
line extension.

• SLOPE TAPPERED INLET – incorporates both method of

increasing hydraulic performance: reducing the entrance
contraction and lowering the control section.
• In vicinity of culverts, high velocity, abrupt changes in
direction of flow and presence of waves and eddies may cause
severe erosion or “scour” to occur.
12-4.5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGN
The HYDRAIN (8) integrated system of computer programs includes the
following software to aid in hydraulic design of ditches, channel, and culverts.

1. HYCLV analyzes the design circular, rectangular, elliptical and other culverts
shapes. It ranks entrance edge condition from most efficient to least efficient.
2. HY8 is a basic program that allows the user to investigate the hydraulic
performance of culvert system, including the actual hydraulic structure as well
as hydrologic inputs, storage and storage consideration, and energy dissipation
devices and strategies.
3. HYCHL provides guidance for the design of stable roadside channels and
makes it possible to analyze the performance capabilities of various channel
linings.
12-4.6 CULVERT TYPES AND MATERIALS

• Materials most commonly used in the construction of culverts

are reinforced concrete and corrugated metal. Less frequently,
culverts are made from timber, cast-iron pipe, vitrified-clay
pipe, and occasionally, stone masonry.
• CONCRETE CULVERTS
• Reinforced-concrete pipe intended for use in culvers is made in
diameters of 12 to 108 in. (300-3600 mm) and in various length, the
usual length being 4 to 8 ft (1.2-2.4 m)

• Concrete box culverts are constructed in place with square or

rectangular cross section, single box culverts vary in size from to 12 ft
(0.6-3.6 m) square depending on the required area of waterway
opening.
• Rectangular cross section are used where it is desired to reduce the
height of the culverts to provide the adequate cover between the top of
the culvert and the roadway surface.
• Concrete arches are sometimes used in place of concrete box
culverts, although difficulties attendant on their proper design and
construction have some what restricted their use.

CORRUGATED METAL (galvanized steel) pipe is made in diameters of

8 to 96 in. (200-2400 mm) and in length of 20 to 40 ft (6-12 m)
 12-4.8 CULVER HEADWALLS AND ENDWALLS
• Headwalls and endwalls are provided on culverts principally to
protect the sides of the embankment against erosion. Some
authorities refer to the upstream wall as a “headwall” and
down stream one as an “endwall”

12-5 HIGHWAY
SUBDRAINAGE
Subdrainage is related to the
control of ground water
encountered in highway locations.
Subdrains are necessary part of the
complete drainage system.
• INLETS are generally provided at intersection to intercept the
water flowing in the gutters before it can reach the pedestrian
sidewalks.
• CATCH BASINS are similar to inlets in their function and
design. The principal difference between a catch basin and inlet
is that in catch basin the outlet pipe is placed some distance
above the bottom of the chamber.
• MANHOLES are built of concrete masonry, concrete block or
brick and cities generally employ a standard design of manhole
to be used in all installation.