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Digital Filter Structures
Content
Introduction
IIR Filter Structures
FIR Filter Structures
Introduction
a z-1
x (n) b0 y(n)
b0 1 2
x (n) y(n)
z-1
z-1 a1
a1
5 3
z-1
a2 a2 z-1
4
y( n) b0 x ( n) a1 y( n 1) a 2 y( n 2)
w 2 ( n) y( n)
w 3 ( n) w 2 ( n 1) y( n 1)
w 4 ( n) w 3 ( n 1) y( n 2)
w 5 ( n) a1 w 3 ( n) a 2 w4 ( n) a1 y( n 1) a 2 y( n 2)
w1 ( n) b0 x( n) w5 ( n) b0 x ( n) a1 y( n 1) a 2 y( n 2)
Introduction
The major factors that influence the choice of a
specific structure
Computational complexity
refers to the number of arithmetic operations (multiplications,
divisions, and additions) required to compute an output value y(n)
for the system.
Memory requirements
refers to the number of memory locations required to store the
system parameters, past inputs, past outputs, and any
intermediate computed values.
Finite-word-length effects in the computations
refers to the quantization effects that are inherent in any digital
implementation of the system, either in hardware or in software.
IIR Filter Structures
Y (z) k
b z k
b0 b1 z 1 bM z M
H (z) k 0
X (z) N
1 (a1 z 1 a N z N )
1 ak z k
k 1
N M
y( n) a k y( n k ) bk x ( n k )
k 1 k 0
Direct form
In this form the difference equation is implemented
directly as given. There are two parts to this filter,
namely the moving average part and the recursive
part (or the numerator and denominator parts).
Therefore this implementation leads to two versions:
direct form I and direct form II structures
M
M N k
b z k
y( n) bk x( n k ) a k y( n k ) H ( z ) k 0
N
k 0 k 1
1 ak z k
k 1
Direct form I
M N
y( n) bk x ( n k ) a k y( n k )
k 0 k 1
b0 y1 ( n) y2 ( n)
x (n) y(n)
z-1 b1 a1 z-1
x ( n 1) y( n 1)
z-1 b2 a2
z-1
x ( n 2) y ( n 2)
bM-1
x ( n M 1) aN-1
y( n N 1)
z-1 bM
x(n M ) aN
z-1
y( n N )
Direct form II
For an LTI cascade system, we can change the order
of the systems without changing the overall system
response
b0
x (n) y(n)
z-1 b1 a1 z-1
z-1 b a2 z-1
2
bM-1
z-1 b
M
aN-1 z-1
aN
IIR Filter Structures
Cascade form
In this form the system function H(z) is written as a
product of second-order sections with real coefficients
M M1 M2
k
b z k
(1 p k z 1
) (1 q k z 1
)(1 q 1
kz )
H (z) k 0
N
A k 1
N1
k 1
N2
1 ak z k (1 c k z 1
) (1 d k z 1
)(1 d 1
kz )
k 1 k 1 k 1
M1 M2
M M1 2M 2
(1 p z ) (1 b
k
1
1k
1
z b2 k z ) 2
N N1 2N 2
H (z) A k 1
N1
k 1
N2
(1
k 1
c k z 1
) (1
k 1
a1k z 1
a 2k z 2
)
IIR Filter Structures
1 b1k z 1 b2 k z 2
H ( z ) A 1 2
A H k ( z )
k 1 a1 k z a2k z k
First-order section
a2k z-1
a2k z-1
8 4 z 1 11 z 2 2 z 3
Example H (z)
5 3 1
1 z 1 z 2 z 3
4 4 8
1 1 2
( 2 0.3799 z )( 4 1 . 2402 z 5 .2644 z )
H (z)
(1 0.25 z 1 )(1 z 1 0.5 z 2 )
x(n) 4 2 y(n)
z-1 -1.2402
0.25
z -1
-0.3799
Parallel form
In this form the system function H(z) is written as a sum
of sections using partial fraction expansion. Each section
is implemented in a direct form. The entire system
function is implemented as a parallel of every section.
Suppose M=N
M
k
b z k
N1
Ak N2
b0 k b1k z 1
H (z) k 0
G0 1
1 2
N
1 c z 1 a z a z
1 ak z k k 1 k k 1 1k 2k
k 1
N N 1 2N 2
IIR Filter Structures
N 1
2
b0 k b1k z 1
H ( z ) G0
k 1 1 a1k z 1 a 2 k z 1
A1 A2 A3 A4
H (z)
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(1 z ) (1 z ) 1 ( j ) z 1 ( j )z
4 8 2 2 2 2
A1 2.93, A2 17.68, A3 12.25 j14.57, A4 12.25 j14.57
24. 5
1 z-1 26.82
-1/2 z-1
IIR Filter Structures
Transposition theorem
If we reverse the directions of all branch transmittances
and interchange the input and output in the flow graph,
the system function remains unchanged.
The resulting structure is called a transposed structure
or a transposed form.
FIR Filter Structures
Direct form
In this form the difference equation is implemented
directly as given. N 1
y( n) h( m ) x ( n m )
m 0
It requires N multiplications
FIR Filter Structures
Cascade form
In this form the system function H(z) is converted into
products of second-order sections with real coefficients
N It requires (3N/2) multiplications
N 1 2
H ( z ) h( n) z n
(b0 k b1k z b2 k z )
1 2
n0 k 1
Linear-phase form
Linear phase:
The phase response is a linear function of frequency
Linear-phase condition
h( n) h( N 1 n) Symmetric impulse response
h( n) h( N 1 n) Antisymmetric impulse response
When an FIR filter has a linear phase response, its
impulse response exhibits the above symmetry
conditions. In this form we exploit these symmetry
relations to reduce multiplications by about half.
If N is odd
N 1
H ( z ) h( n) z n
n 0
N 1
1
N 1 N 1
2
N 1
h(n)z
n0
n
h(
2
)z 2
h(n)z
N 1
n
n 1
2
N 1
1
N 1
1 let n N 1 m
N 1
2
N 1 2
h
n0
( n ) z n
h(
2
)z 2
h(
m 0
N 1 m ) z ( N 1 m )
N 1
1 let n m
N 1
2
N 1
h( n)[ z n z ( N 1 n ) ] h( )z 2
n0 2
h( n) h( N 1 n)
If N is odd
N 1
1
N 1
2
N 1
H (z) h(n)[ z
n0
n
z ( N 1 n )
] h(
2
)z 2
x (n)
z-1 z-1 z-1
±1 ±1 ±1 ±1
z -1
z-1
z-1
h(0) h(1) h( 2) N 1 N 1
h( 1) h( )
2 2
y(n)
1 for symmetric
-1 for antisymmetric
If N is even
N
1
N 1 2 N 1
H ( z ) h( n) z n h( n ) z n
h( n ) z n
n0 n 0 N
n
2
N
2
1
N
2
1 let n N 1 m
h
n0
( n ) z n
h( N
m 0
1 m ) z ( N 1 m )
N
1 let n m
2
h
n0
( n )[ z n
z ( N 1 n )
] h( n) h( N 1 n)
N
If N is even 2
1
H (z) h
n0
( n )[ z n
z ( N 1 n )
]
x (n) z-1
z-1 z-1
±1 ±1 ±1 ±1 ±1 z-1
z-1 z-1 z-1
h(0) h(1) h( 2) N N
h( 2) h( 1)
2 2
y(n)
1 for symmetric
-1 for antisymmetric
N 1 N 1
1 H ( k ) 1
H ( z ) (1 z N ) k 1
H c ( z ) H k ( z )
N k 0 1 W N z N k 0
Hc (z) 1 z N
zN
2 4
0
N N
N 1 N 1
H (k )
H k ( z )
1 W k 1 resonant filter
k 0 k 0 N z
The pole locations are identical to the zero locations and that
2
both occur at k , which are the frequencies at which
N
the designed frequency response is specified. The gains of
the filter at these frequencies are simply the complex-valued
parameters H (k )
N 1 N 1
1 H (k ) 1
H ( z ) (1 z N
)
N k 1
k 0 1 W N z
N
H c ( z ) H k ( z )
k 0
H ( 0)
W N0 z-1
H (1)
x (n) y(n)
W N1 z-1
zN
H ( N 1)
W N ( N 1) z-1
FIR Filter Structures
Problems
It requires a complex arithmetic implementation
It is possible to obtain an alternate realization in which only
real arithmetic is used. This realization is derived using the
symmetric properties of the DFT and the W N k factor.
H r (k ) H (k )
N N 1
1 r z N
H (k )
H (z)
N 1 rW k 1
k 0 N z
N 1
1 r N zN H (k )
H (z)
N 1 rW k 1
k 0 N z
H (k ) H(N k)
H k (z) k 1
1 rW N z 1 rW N( N k ) z 1
1
H (k )
H (k ) b b z
0k 1k
k 1
1 rW N z k 1
1 rW N z 1 2 2 2
1 z 2r cos( k ) r z
N
k 1,2, , N 1 , N is odd
2 b0 k 2 Re[ H ( k )]
N
k 1,2, , 1, N is even b1k 2r Re[ H ( k )W Nk ]
2
N is even jIm[z] N is odd jIm[z]
|z|=r |z|=r
2 z-1 b1k
2r cos( k)
N
r2 z-1
first-order sections
H0 (z) H N (z)
2
H ( 0) H(N )
2
r z-1 r z-1
1 r z
N N N 1
2
N is even H (z) H 0 ( z ) H N ( z ) H k ( z )
N 2 k 1
N ( N 1 )
N is odd 1 r z N 2
H 0 ( z ) H k ( z )
H (z)
N k 1
H0 (z)
1
H1 ( z)
N
x (n) y(n)
H k (z )
r N zN
H N (z)
2
FIR Filter Structures
4
0
2 -2
0 -4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n
h(n)=h(N-1-n) h(n)=-h(N-1-n)
4
6 N 10 N 10
2
4 return
0
2 -2
0 -4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n