The Study of Logic

INTRODUCTION
THE BACKGROUND OF LOGIC

Philosophy and its ORIGIN

History claims that Philosophy begun from a
simple process which is called WONDERING.
THE BACKGROUND OF LOGIC

The Greeks who are strong proponents of

Western Philosophical thoughts owed their
interests from Thales of Miletus (624-574 BC)
who regarded by Aristotle to be the first
philosopher.
DEFINITION

 Derived from the Greek word ”logos” which

means - study, reason or discourse

 LOGIC is the science and art of correct thinking

- it is a SCIENCE because it is a
systematized body of logical truths and
principles governing correct thinking
 - as an ART, logic is a “techne” and it
teaches how to make a good argument
- often called the arts of arts because
it develops and perfects the intellect
which all artists need in their work
IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC
(7 IMPORTANT REASONS WHY STUDY LOGIC)
1. The study of logic develops in the learner the skills to reason
out with order, validity, truth and accuracy.
2. The knowledge of Logic helps to prevent us from committing
grave error in the acts of thinking and reasoning.
3. It is necessary aid in evaluating and understanding other
studies.
4. It is a tool in discerning validity and truth of propositions and
arguments.
5. It prevents us from making conclusions based on false and
biased assumptions.
6. Logic contributes to the growth of the individual, improving the
quality of his life.
7. Logic builds in the individual self-confidence, provides a
feeling of direction, and gives assurance of being in control of
one’s situation.
LOGIC AS A SCIENCE

Logic as a science has two implications:

1. That it is a body of systematized knowledge

2. That it investigates, discovers, expresses,

systematizes and demonstrates the laws of
correct thinking.
LOGIC AS AN ART

As an art, on the other hand, Logic guides man’s

reasoning so he can proceed with order and
ease and without error in the constructive
activity of making definition of terms,
propositions, and inferences.
 LOGIC AND CORRECT THINKING
 It is “correct” when it conforms to a pattern or
to rules
 Example: A ruler is 12-inch long
Pres. PRRD is a ruler
Therefore, Pres. PRRD is 12-inch long

-THINKING is a mental process – involves

analysis, definition, classification, comparison
and contrasts, etc.
- It guides or directs man to form correct ideas
BRANCHES OF LOGIC

 FORMAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of form which has
something to do with the correctness or
sequence or the following of rules
Ex. All men are mortal
but Pedro is a man
therefore Pedro is mortal
BRANCHES OF LOGIC

 MATERIAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of subject matter or
content or truth of the argument
 Example: A ruler is 12-inch long

Pres. Duterte is a ruler

Therefore, Pres. Duterte is 12-inch long
KINDS
- Deductive Logic: from more to less

- Inductive Logic: implies a sense of probability

 CONCEPTS AND TERMS
 The three essential operations of the intellect
Mental Operations Products External Signs

1. SIMPLE CONCEPT ORAL AND WRITTEN

APPREHENSION TERMS

2. JUDGMENT MENTAL ORAL AND WRITTEN

PROPOSITION PROPOSITIONS

3. REASONING MENTAL ORAL AND WRITTEN

AGREEMENT OR ARGUMENTS
DISAGREEMENT
CONCEPT

 The representation of an object by the intellect

through which man understands or
comprehends a thing
 It is an “idea”- starts with an outside reality and
apprehended by the senses
KINDS OF CONCEPT

1.First Intention: we understand what the thing

is according to what it is in reality
Ex. A dog is an animal.
Second Intention: we understand not only what
the thing is according to what it is in reality but
also how it is in the mind
Ex. “Monte Vista” (Mountain View) is the
name of my subdivision
KINDS OF CONCEPT

2.Concrete Concepts: expresses a “form” and a

“subject”
Ex. The flower rose
Abstract Concepts: has a “form” only , has
intangible quality, that which cannot be
perceived by the senses
Ex. Beauty in a woman
SEAT WORK 1 - MIND EXERCISE ON SECOND CLASSIFICATION OF
CONCEPTS

1. A blond woman is walking down the street.

2. The intelligence of a man.
3. Beauty is the essence of nature.
4. The boy is crying.
5. The truth shall set you free.
6. The watch tower is still standing.
7. Blue symbolizes loyalty.
8. The perfection in art.
9. Life is happy.
10. This is a romance book.
KINDS OF CONCEPT

3.Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning of a

concept, all definitions are absolute concepts
Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure.

It is a concept that manifest itself to the mind as

a substance and as independent reality.

Ex. Man, People, God, Society, Flower, Table

Connotative Concepts: signifies a characteristic existing in
the concept, all modifiers are connotative concepts
Ex. Drummer boy

It is a concept that manifest itself to the mind as an

accident connected to the substance
Ex. Adjectives: Kind person , Beautiful dress,
Some nouns like communicator , debater, orator and
others can be considered also as connotative concepts
for they also manifesting the same character as the
adjectives.
KINDS OF CONCEPT

4.Positive Concepts: signifies the existence or

'possession of something.
- Is a concept that manifests an object to the
mind according to what it is or what it is made
of.
Ex. The ball is round
- The example presents to the mind a thing called
“ball” and this is “round”,
 Negative Concepts: signifies the absence of
something
- Is a concept that manifests an object to the mind
according to what it is not or what it is not made
of.
- All negative concepts are describe in a negative
form.
Ex. Man is not a brute
The concept presented in this premise is negative
because it expresses an object that lacks
something, namely, its “bruteness”.
 CONCEPTS AND TERMS
 The three essential operations of the intellect
Mental Operations Products External Signs

1. SIMPLE CONCEPT ORAL AND WRITTEN

APPREHENSION TERMS

2. JUDGMENT MENTAL ORAL AND WRITTEN

PROPOSITION PROPOSITIONS

3. REASONING MENTAL ORAL AND WRITTEN

AGREEMENT OR ARGUMENTS
DISAGREEMENT
THE TERM
When an idea or concept is externalized either by oral or written, a term
is produced.
Term is considered to be the outward representation of an idea or
concept.

 The external representation of a concept and the ultimate structural

element of a proposition (statement to be proved, explained and
discuss).

- external representation means it is always a sign of a concept or an

idea
- ultimate structural element means it could either be the subject or
predicate (something that is affirmed or denied of the subject in a
proposition in logic) of a proposition
THE TERM

It is regarded to be an essential part of a

proposition. In fact the formulation of a
proposition starts from the conception of a
term which is being paired with another term.
THE TERM

EXAMPLE:

Hilda is a (nun).

subject predicate
PROPERTIES OF A TERM

EXTENSION OF A TERM
- the sum total of the particulars to which the
comprehension of a concept can be applied
- The denotation of a term

- The terms that are members of the domain of

the concept
PROPERTIES OF A TERM

 COMPREHENSION OF A TERM
- the sum total of all notes which constitute the
meaning of a concept
- set of traits or characteristics that differentiates
the term in a group
- the connotation of a term
PROPERTIES OF A TERM
 Example is the term BAT
-for its extension it will include all animals,
regardless of size, shape, colour, or breeding
-further analysis (comprehension), know the
nature of bats – how?
- You must try to state the trait or set of traits and
characteristics that differentiates bats from the
rest of the animal kingdom
 PROPERTIES OF A TERM
 Example is the term BAT
-the important common trait of bats is: they are
the only mammals capable of sustained flight
like a bird
Unlike birds, bats are able to fly at low speed
-

with extreme maneuverability.

RELATIONSHIP
 Comprehension and Extension are related to
each other inversely
 Meaning: the greater the comprehension of a
term, the lesser its extension and vice versa
- the arrangement of the characteristics from
general to specific
 Ex. city, barangay, province, municipality,
region, country, sitio
ACTIVITY

 Arrange the ff. from greater comprehension to

lesser extension
1. Pedro, Filipino, Man, Asian, Brown Race

2. Square, Plane, Figure, Rectangle, Polygon,

Parallelogram, shape
ANSWER TO ACTIVITY

 1. Man 2. Plane
 Asian Figure
 Brown Race Shape
 Filipino Polygon
 Pedro Parallelogram
 Rectangle
 Square
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
1. SINGULAR – it stands for a single definite
individual or group
- Proper nouns ex. Raul, Caloocan, WCC
- Nouns modified by adjective to the
superlative degree ex. most charming
- Demonstratives ex. this book, that door
- Collective nouns ex. flock, class
- The article the ex. The man in blue shorts
- Personal pronouns – I, you, he, she, we, they,
my, your, our
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
2. PARTICULAR - it stands for an indefinite
subject
- Indefinite pronouns and adjectives
ex. Some, several, many, few
- Use of numbers ex. Seven tickets
- Use of article “a” and “an”
- General propositions: which are true most of
the time but not all the time
ex. Filipinos are hospitable
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
3. UNIVERSAL – it stands for every subject
signified
- Universal expressions ex. All, every, each,
whatever, whoever, whichever, without
exception, everything
- Universal ideas
Ex. Men are mortal
- The use of articles “the”, “a”, “an” if the idea
is universal
Ex. The snake is a dangerous creature.
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS ACCORDING TO THE
EXTENT OF MEANING OR SIGNIFICATION
The use of terms vary according to the extent of
their meaning or signification.
They may be similar in meanings even though
they were used in several occasions or they
maybe different or not, they may have partly
difference or partly similarity in meanings.
KINDS OF TERMS
1. UNIVOCAL – if they mean exactly the same thing in the last
two occurrences
If they exhibit similarity in meaning or signification, even
though, they are used in at least two occasions.

Ex. Man is rational.

Get that man!
Ex. Francis Bacon is a Philosopher.
Frederich Nietzche is a Philosopher

What we have here, is an example of a term whose meaning

remains to be the same in spite of being used in
preposition. “philosopher” connotes a person who indulges
with the science of philosophy.
2. EQUIVOCAL – if they have different meanings in at least two
occurrences
If they exhibit difference in meaning or signification
whenever they are used at least two occasions.
Ex. Man the lifeboat!
The son of man
Ex, Her lover gave her a ring
The bells ring
These two underlined terms, certainly, do not have similarities
in meaning or signification. The first underlined term
connotes apiece of jewelry, while the second refers to the
sound produced by the devices called bells.
Accordingly, equivocal terms can be known by
considering the 3 processes:
Spelling alone – some terms are similar in
spelling but the manner of pronouncing them
are entirely different. Consequently, their
meanings are also different.
ex. Resume (biodata)
Resume (to continue)
Accordingly, equivocal terms can be known by
considering the 3 processes:
Sound alone – in some instances terms maybe in
the same in pronunciation or utterance but
their spellings remained different as well as
their meanings.

Ex. Made-maid, seek-sick, red-read, gone-gun.

Accordingly, equivocal terms can be known by
considering the 3 processes:
Both sound and spelling – some terms may have
similarity in sound and spelling but still their
meanings remained to be different.

Ex. Match-match, light-light, right-right, seal,seal.

KINDS OF TERMS
3. ANALOGOUS – if they have partly the same and partly
different meanings in at least two occurrences
if they express partly the same and partly different
meanings when used at least two occasions.

Ex. Orange (a fruit) and “Orange” (color)

These two terms are related to one another by virtue of
their proportionality and attribution.
Ex. “land” (ground) and “land”
To set down (to land) a ship will entail place to set the ship
down.
DEFINITION AND ITS LAWS
It is the instinct of logical process to use terms.
Consequently, the meaning of the term is
connected to the realm of definition.

The attainment of truth is possible if terms to be

used are properly understood.
Logic has the ground for understanding terms
through the discussion of the nature and laws
of definition.
NATURE OF DEFINITION

The term “definition” was derived from a latin

word definire which is translated to mean “to
assign limits”.

Words are defined for the purpose of knowing

their meanings.
Dictionary, Thesaurus and encyclopedias are
common sources of knowledge in relation to
the definition of terms.

In the process of defining terms, we literally

assign limitations to such terms in order that
we may distinguish them from other terms we
already know.
BUT WHAT IS DEFINITION?

 Accordingly, it is defined as a statement which

explains the meaning of a term.

Ex.
We define “man” as an “intelligent social being”.
KINDS OF DEFINITION

1. Nominal – is a definition which speaks about a

term but not declaring anything about it
CLASSIFICATION OF NOMINAL DEFINITION

1. Nominal Definition by etymology – it is

attained by tracing the origin of the term.

ex. The term “fraternity” is derived from the latin

word frater which means “brother”
CLASSIFICATION OF NOMINAL DEFINITION

2. Nominal Definition by description - it is

attained by describing the term to be defined.

Ex. ART is a three-letter word.

CLASSIFICATION OF NOMINAL DEFINITION

3. Nominal Definition by synonym- it is done by

giving a word equivalent to the same term to
be defined.

Ex. “kind” means “good”

CLASSIFICATION OF NOMINAL DEFINITION

4. Nominal Definition by example -

it is done by citing anything that will represent the
term to be defined

Ex. A senator is like Panfilo Lacson

KINDS OF DEFINITION

1. Nominal – is a definition which speaks about a

term but not declaring anything about it
2. Real – is a definition which declares
something about the term.
CLASSIFICATION OF REAL DEFINITION

1. Real Definition by genus and specific

difference – is attained by stating the nature of
the term in order to know what makes that term
different from the other terms.
CLASSIFICATION OF REAL DEFINITION

Ex. If the term “triangle” will be defined in this

manner – a figure with three sides” Such
definition is a real definition by genus and
specific differences.

Its having a “three sides” makes the thing

different from other figures.
CLASSIFICATION OF REAL DEFINITION

2. Real Definition by description – is done by

stating the genus of a term but altering the
specific difference by giving logical property
which belongs to the term to be defined
CLASSIFICATION OF REAL DEFINITION

Ex. If the term “police officer” will be defined in

this manner – “is a man bestowed with the
authority to enforce law”. The term “man” here
is its genus of course this is applicable to any
gender, whether male or female.
CLASSIFICATION OF REAL DEFINITION

3. Real Definition by cause– is done by stating

the genus of a term but altering the specific
difference by tracing its cause (purpose,
function, reason for existence, make up or
origin).
CLASSIFICATION OF REAL DEFINITION

Ex. If the term “microscope” is to be defined as

“an instrument used to study micro organism
such as bacteria, cells and others”

Such definition becomes real definition be

cause because it traces the cause of the term
by considering its function and purpose
LIMITS OF REAL DEFINITON
Though real definition explains something about the
term, nonetheless, it has some of its limitations.

It cannot afford to explain about the things that are

related to proper names, qualities, transcendental
concepts, experiences and abstract things.
Ex. Proper names so to speak cannot be defined but
can only be identified. If I say “Peter an apostle”, I
am not defining “Peter” but I am merely identifying
the person whose name is “Peter”.
Qualities like beautiful, kind, excellent, outstanding
and others are identifiable just like proper names
but can not be subjected to stricter definition

Ex. If I say beautiful, kind, excellent, outstanding and

others are identifiable just like the proper names
but can not be subjected to stricter definition.
Ex. “Beautiful means something pleasant”
This is not really a real definition but mere
identification of anything that looks pleasant
Abstract or Transcendental concepts cannot also
defined in the strictest sense.

Ex. Terms like something, everybody, nobody,

intelligence, patience, being and others.

Experiences by nature are indefinable, for they are

subject to man’s individual sensible awareness
and not to his intelligible awareness
LAWS OF DEFINITION
It is very important that terms to be used in creating
arguments should be properly understood. The
only way to do this, is by knowing the meanings of
the term used.

Naturally in doing this, we need to define the terms to

be used at least in our minds.
1. THE DEFINITION SHOULD EXPLAIN THE TERM
CLEARLY.
In explaining the nature of a term it is imperative that
ambiguous metaphors, explicitly difficult words
should be avoided.
2. THE DEFINITION SHOULD BE BRIEF BUT
PRECISE.
One of the problems usually related to the manner of
defining terms is formulating long explanation and
using unnecessary words.
3. THE DEFINITION MUST BE COEXTENSIVE WITH
THE TERM TO BE DEFINED
This is being done be applying the definition to every
example that is connected to a term being
defined.
In other words, the definition and the term should be
identical in extension.
Ex. If I say “parrot is a talking bird” this is a defective
definition because it is not coextensive with the
term being defined.
4. THE DEFINITION SHOULD BE FORMULATED
POSITIVELY
Though not all definitions are formulated in a positive
way.
It is important that every definition should be
formulated in this manner.
5. THE DEFINITION MUST NOT CONTAIN THE
TERM THAT IS TO BE DEFINED.
A defective definition usually arises whenever the
definition contains the very term to be defined.

Ex. If the term “political science” is to be defined as a

science of politics” then it is tautologous in nature
for it contains the same term that is to be defined.
JUDGEMENT AND PROPOSITION
DEFINITION OF JUDGMENT
It is defined as a mental operation where by an act
of pronouncement regarding the agreement and
disagreement between two concepts are made.
Ex. We analyze the two given concepts like “boy” and
“bad”.
The mind in its attempt to pronounce the agreement
or disagreement between these two terms may
either say, “the boy is bad” or “the boy is not bad”.
 Example : The term “ lady ” and the term “ beautiful ” are
neither true nor false. But when the intellect compares
these two terms and expresses whether they agree or
disagree in a statement, then we can say whether the
statement is true or false. Thus, the sentence “The lady is
beautiful.” could now be said to be true or false. The
intellect making judgment therefore either affirms or
denies.
COMPONENTS OF JUDGMENT
The emergence of this mental act owes from its components:
1. The existence of two concepts
it may take the form of a subject and a predicate in a
proposition.
2. The comparison of these two concepts
simply manifests a process of knowing the relationship
existing between the two concept given
3. The pronouncement of the agreement or disagreement of
these two concepts.
embodies the principle behind the true essence of
judgment.
PROPOSITION
 external sign of judgment w/c express declarative sentence.
 provides reason, explanation to support a judgment made
expresses an idea, explanation feeling or emotion.
 can be analyzed as either true or false
 definition of a statement which affirms or denies something
about a reality or object.
PROPOSITION

Ex.
Are you the teacher of this class?
Please hand me a piece of paper.
Not again
ELEMENTS OF A PROPOSITION
1. Subject term- being talk about the predicate.

Quantifier- words w/c determines the quantity.

2. Copula- are expressed in the verb ‘to be’

- determines the quality.

3. Predicate term- the one that describe the subject.

SUBJECT – COPULA-PREDICATE
Ex.

Athletes are people with energy

KINDS OF PROPOSITION
I. Categorical Proposition
 a proposition whose Predicate is Directly
attributed to the Subject.
 Answerable by true or false and yes or no
directly.
 Predicate is always pointing out the subject
directly.
 proposition by which the affirmation or denial
b/w two concepts is expressed in an
Absolute, Immediate, Direct or Unconditional
manner
Ex. Mangyans are the minorities from Mindoro.
KINDS OF PROPOSITION
II. Hypothetical Proposition
 is proposition by which the affirmation or
denial between two concepts is expressed in
an indirect and conditional manner.
 It is standard for every hypothetical
proposition to contain two independent
clauses.

Ex. If man can think then he is rational. This

proposition does not absolutely state the fact
because of the emergence of a conditional
clause “if”. Therefore the direct affirmation or
denial about the two concepts is waived.
KINDS OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
 CONDITIONAL
is a hypothetical proposition which contains antecedent and
consequent statements.

Ex. “if a man can think then he is rational”.

The first statement “if a man can think” is the antecedent and “then he
is rational” becomes the consequent.

 DISJUNCTIVE
is a hypothetical proposition which presents alternatives but only
one of these alternatives will prove to be true and the other will
always be false.

Ex. Either you love me or you hate me.

If the first element is true then the second element is automatically false
 CONJUNCTIVE
is a hypothetical proposition which denies the
simultaneous possibility of two alternatives.

Ex. Man cannot be rational and irrational at the same time.

IF man is rational therefore it is impossible for man to be
irrational in the same respect.
QUANTITY OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
The quantity of a categorical proposition is determined
according to the extension of a subject matter.
1. Particular Proposition- is a proposition that uses
particular subject term.
Ex. Some, several, few, many and etc.
 Several movie directors are passionate.
2. Universal Proposition- is a proposition that uses
singular, indefinite, collective and universal w/c
focuses on subject term.
Ex. This, that, all, every, each, any, group and no
quantifier but it’s ends in ‘S’
 All government officials are natural-born
citizens.
QUANTITY OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

3. Singular – a proposition is singular if the subject term

can only be applied to s specific individuals or group.
Ex. A common noun, superlative, proper name, personal
pronoun or demonstrative pronoun can express
singularity of a proposition
 Panfilo Lacson is a senator
 QUALITY OF A CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION
There are only two qualities of a proposition
namely the affirmative and the negative. The
quality of a categorical proposition is known
through the copula.
The copula determines the relationship existing
between the subject and the predicate. Thereby
expressing the quality of a proposition.
 The quality of proposition is determined by the
quality of the copula

Affirmative
 whenever the predicate term accepts
something of the subject term

All roses are flowers.

Negative
 whenever the predicate term negates or denies
something of the subject term

A squash is not an eggplant.

QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF A
PROPOSITION IN SYMBOLIC FORMS
The quality and quantity of a proposition are
expressed in symbols A,E,I and O.
The idea of using these symbols is just a mere
analysis of the prime functions of a proposition
namely to affirm or to deny.

In latin, the word “I affirm” is translated as

“AFFIRMO” and the word “I deny” is translated
“NEGO”
TABLE OF THE QUANTITY AND
QUALITY OF PREPOSITIONS
Proposition Quantity Quality

A Universal or Affirmative
Singular
E Universal or Negative
Singular
I Particular Affirmative

O Particular Negative
 EXAMPLES

A - Every monkey is an animal.

 E - No monkey is a human.

 I - Some monkeys are brown.

 O - Some monkeys are not brown.

TABLE OF QUANTIFIERS
UNIVERSAL PARTICULAR SINGULAR

All, any, anything, anyone,
anybody, always.
Each, every, everything,
everybody, everyone
Some, something, someone
somebody, sometimes, Few
several, plenty, most, several,
majority, many a good number,
majority
All common nouns
(flower, table, man, etc.)
All collective nouns
(group, family, band, flock, etc.)

No, nothing, no one, nobody, Almost all, almost every, almost

never
Whatever, whoever, whichever
Articles like the, a and an (for
universal ideas)
everyone, almost everybody, very All superlative
many (best, worst, excellent, etc.)
Very few
Practically all,
Practically every, All personal pronouns
Practically everyone (I, you, it, etc)
Practically
Everything, Practically everybody
Not all not, not many, All demonstrative pronouns
Not every, not everyone, not (that, this, those, etc)
everything, not everybody,

The use of numbers like ten

percent or 800 or 1 kilo