First edition

Ahmed M. Alaa

2008 1
FIrst edItIon

Fundamental
Types of Antennas

By
Ahmed M.Alaa

2
 Contents
Introduction …. 8
Chapter 1 : Basic antenna terminology ………..9

1.1 Radiation pattern

1.2 Directivity
1.3 Gain
1.4 Efficiency
1.5 Types of antennas
Chapter 2 : Dipole antenna ………..34

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Balanced and
Unbalanced Systems
2.3 Image theory
2.4 Monopoles
2.5 Disadvantages
3
Contents

Chapter 3 : Loop antennas………..61

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Design Parameters
3.3 Equivalent Circuits
3.4 Loop antenna
Configurations
3.5 Applications in mobile
Communication system
Chapter 4 : Yagi Uda antennas………..77

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Components
4.3 Design procedure
4.4 Advantages
4.5 The folded dipole
4
Contents

Chapter 5 : Reflector antennas………..92

5.1 Why Reflectors ?

5.2 Types of reflectors
According to geometry
5.3 Types of Parabolic
Surfaces
5.4 Methods of feeding
Parabolic reflectors
5.5 Using Image theory
To calculate field
5.6 Using GTD to calculate
The field

5
Contents

Chapter 6 : Microstrip antennas………..105

6.1 Components
6.2 Types of microstrip
Antennas
6.3 Feeding techniques
6.4 Advantages
6.5 Disadvantages
6.6 Techniques to overcome
Disadvantages
6.7 Microstrip arrays
6.8 Feeding of arrays
6.9 Microstrip vs. reflectors.

6
Contents

Chapter 7 : Fractal antennas………..130

7.1 Definition
7.2 Characteristics
7.3 Types of fractals
7.4 Advantages

7
Introduction

This book presents a collection of presentations

I gave And tutorials I made previously for basic
concepts of Antenna design , it shows you a
conceptual overview for Each type of antennas
and software programs that you Can use to design
them , their advantages , Disadvantages and
applications they are used in without Involving
any complicated equations. The book can be
Considered a quick guide for amateur
antenna designers Or readers interested in
understanding how antennas
Work with no prerequisites …

8
Chapter 1
Basic antenna terminology

Thomas Edison used

Antennas in 1885 !

9
Basic Antenna
terminology
Outline

1. Radiation Pattern
2. Directivity
3. Gain
4. Efficiency
5. Types of antennas

10
 1.1 Radiation Pattern

The distribution of power or it’s

Derivatives ( power density , power
Intensity ) in the space around the
Antenna , relative to the maximum
Magnitude , i.e. : Radiation pattern
Is concerned with the proportion
Of magnitudes and not their values..
The pattern varies according to
Different and .

An example to a radiation pattern in

Cartesian coordinates

11
 Radiation Pattern

 Azimuth plane


Elevation plane
An example to a radiation pattern in
Polar coordinates

12
Radiation Pattern

An example to a 3D
Representation of a
Radiation pattern.

13
Radiation Pattern : Half power beam width

The beam width is the angle included between two angles in which u (,  )
Is equal to half Umax , where U is the power intensity . The half power beam
Width = 1 -2 . Where 1 and 2 are the angles where U is half its
Max value , the same for the elevation angle .
The Half power beam widths are :
a – Azimuth plane beam width
b – Elevation plane beam width

14
 Radiation Pattern : Half power beam width

When the pattern’s mathematical formula is independent on phi , the pattern

Is symmetric about the z – axis , then the Azimuth plane beam width is equal
To the elevation plane beam width .

Calculating Azimuth plane beam width Calculating elevation plane beam width

Putting = / 2 , we can calculate Putting =/ 2 , we can calculate

Phi 1 and Phi 2 Theta 1 and Theta 2

15
Radiation Pattern : Azimuth plane half power beam width

16
Radiation Pattern : Elevation plane half power beam width

17
Radiation Pattern : First Null beam width

The beam included by angles where the power is ZERO , usually the first
Nulls bound the major lobe of the radiation pattern , the first null beam width
Is calculated by estimating the angles where the power intensity is
Zero .

18
Radiation Pattern : Directive Antennas

Some Applications we need the receiving or transmitting process to be

Directed in a certain direction , the radiation pattern then have a major lobe
With most of the power concentrated in a certain beam .

19
 Radiation Pattern : Directive Antennas

Side lobes : lobes

That have lower
Power than major Major lobes : the
Lobes ( also called Lobes with highest
Minor lobes ) . Power concentration
( usually present in
Directive antennas)

Back lobe : The

Lobe directed
To the earth in
3D representation
The decart plot of a directive antenna

20
Radiation Pattern : Directive Antennas

The 3D plot of a directive antenna

21
Radiation Pattern : Omindirectional Antennas

Antennas are said to be omindirectional when the power is distributed

Equally around the antenna without being concentrated within a certain
Beam .

22
Radiation Pattern : Omindirectional Antennas

The decart plot of an

omindirectional antenna
The distribution of power
Around the antenna
Is nearly equal .

23
Radiation Pattern : Omindirectional Antennas

The 3D plot of an omindirectional antenna

24
 1.2 . Directivity

Directivity : The measure of how much power , power density or power

Intensity is concentrated in a certain beam
D = Umax / Uo
Where Uo is the average power intensity and Umax is maximum intensity
When Umax = Uo , the antenna is omindirectional & D = 1 = 0 dB .

25
 Directivity

The directivity is usually inversely proportional with the half power beam width
D ( 1 / HPBW )

Ideal case D =
Infinity , and HPBW U ( ,) Omindirectional U ( ,)
=0.
( a Pulse where ALL
Power is
concentrating
 
At one point .)

26
 1.3 . Gain

Gain : The directivity after considering the antennas efficiency .

G=D* 
Usually measured in dB .

27
 1.4 . Efficiency

The Efficiency of an Antenna is divided into three parts :

a – Radiation Efficiency
b – Mismatch
c – Polarization losses .

28
 Efficiency : Radiation Efficiency

Radiation Efficiency : The efficiency of the antenna itself , regardless of

The antenna system , and the polarization mismatch , it is related to the
Material of the antenna .

Radiation Efficiency
=
( Radiated Power ) Sometimes called =
/ ( Radiated Power + ecd
Lost Power ) .

29
 Efficiency : Reflection Mismatch

When an antenna is connected to a generator , the transmission line used causes

a reflection in the impedance of the antenna if the characteristic impedance of
The transmission line ( Zo ) differs from the input impedance of the antenna
( Z in ) . The input impedance is transformed by Zin = ( Zo * Zo ) / Zold .

= Reflection
| ( Zin – Zo ) / ( Zin + Zo ) | Coefficient

Reflection
er = 1 - | |2
Efficiency
30
Efficiency : Reflection Mismatch

Zo

An equivalent circuit for an

Antenna attached to a
Generator , the input

~ Zin Impedance of the load

( antenna ) is not equal to
Zin but the transmission
Line transforms it according
To its characteristic
Impedance Zo .

31
 Efficiency : Polarization losses

If the Polarization of the incident wave is not matching with the polarization of
The antenna , losses results in and measured by polarization loss factor
PLF .

Antenna
Polarization Received Signal

Co – Polar

Component Cross -Polar
Component
PLF = Cos 
Lost Component 32
 1.5 . Types of Antennas

1 – Wire Antennas 2 – Aperture Antennas

3 – Microstrip Antennas 4 – Array Antennas

5 – Reflector Antennas 6 – Lens Antennas .

33
Chapter 2
Dipole antenna

C.A.Balanis is one of
The most important
antenna scientists , and
Contributed with a
famous book
“Antenna theory”.
34
Dipole Antenna
Outline

1. Introduction
2. Balanced and
Unbalanced Systems
3. Image theory
4. Monopoles
5. Disadvantages

Practical Example

35
 2.1. Introduction

The dipole antenna is the simplest antenna , despite of not being used
Practically in applications , it is used to test antenna labs ( so it is considered
The reference antenna ) , a dipole antenna consists of 2 wires ( lambda /4 for
Its length ) , the two wires are separated by a gap and their terminals are
Connected to the transmitter or the receiver

+
/ 4 This type of dipoles is called
- Half wave length dipole as the
/ 4 Total length is lambda / 2 .

36
Introduction : Geometry

37
Introduction : dipole configuration

38
 Introduction : Characteristics

The directivity is nearly equal to 1.6 dimensionless and about 2 -> 2.2 dB ,
The input impedance is usually 73 + 42.5 j ohms and the radiation resistance
Is nearly 73 ohm .

39
 Introduction : Radiation Pattern I

The dipole is an Electric field Antenna , that means that the magnetic field is
Zero at the near field . The radiation pattern is like a donut cake with the maximum
Perpendicular to the dipole , and a null along it .
The polarization is along the dipole .

The
The3D3Dplot
plotofofthe
theradiation
radiation
Pattern
Patternofofaadipole
dipoleantenna
antenna. .

40
Introduction : Radiation Pattern I

The
Theradiation
radiationpattern
patternfor
forthe
the
Electric
Electricfield
fieldfor
foraafolded
foldeddipole
dipole
antenna
antenna

41
 Introduction : Radiation Pattern II

The
Theradiation
radiationpattern
patternofofthe
thedipole
dipole, ,all
allthe
thefield
fieldisiselectric
electricas
asshown
shown. .

42
 Introduction : Radiation Pattern III

The
Theradiation
radiationpattern
patternofofthe
thedipole
dipole, ,the
themagnetic
magneticfield
fieldequals
equalszero
zero. .

No radiation
Pattern for the
Magnetic field
“ H “ !!
This means that
A dipole is an
Electric field
Antenna …
43
 Introduction : Radiation Pattern IV

When
Whenthe
thelength
lengthofofthe
thedipole
dipoleexceeds
exceedslambda
lambdathetheradiation
radiationpattern
patterntakes
takes
AAnew
newshape
shapedue
duetotothetheappearance
appearanceofofthe
thegrating
gratinglobes
lobeswhere
wherethe
themajor
major
Lobes
Lobesdivides
dividesinto
intomultiple
multiplelobes
lobes. .

44
 2.2 . Balanced and Unbalanced Systems

Balanced System

A system with two input terminals , a positive and negative terminals , the
Dipole antenna is a balanced system because it has two terminals and this
Is why it is not widely used in applications .

+ Balanced
2 input terminals
- System

45
 Balanced and Unbalanced Systems

Unbalanced System

A system with one input terminal , having a single pole and a ground plane
, we desire an unbalanced system because when mounting an antenna in a
Device only one input will is used for each component and all components have
A common ground .

Unbalanced
1 input terminal System

46
Balanced and Unbalanced Systems :
Baluns

47
 2.3 . Image theory

When a single pole is near an infinite plane conductor , virtual sources ( images )
Will be introduced to account for their reflections , the plane conductor can be
Considered a ground and thus we can construct an antenna that have the same
Behavior of a dipole but having a single pole , this type of antennas is called
Monopoles , and have the advantage of being an unbalanced system .

Conductors Fields

Electric conductor Electric field

PEC
Magnetic Conductors Magnetic field
PMC

48
 Image theory

When electric and magnetic fields are near electric and magnetic fields their
Images are in the following directions :

 = infinity  = infinity
PMC
PEC

49
 2.4 . Monopoles

When combining actual and image sources , an equivalent system of a dipole

Is resulted and actually resembles the behavior of a dipole but with using a
Single pole and having the advantage of being an unbalanced system , this is
Why monopoles are more practically used than dipoles .

A direct ray from the

Actual source to the A reflected ray from the
Observation point Ground plane to the
Represents the first Same observation
Pole of a dipole . Point , has the same
Effect of a virtual source
Representing the second
Pole .
50
Monopoles

51
 Monopoles

Monopole Dipole

Zin = Zin =
36.5 + 21.25j 73+ 42.5j

52
 Monopoles

The radiation pattern of a monopole is half the radiation pattern of a dipole

If we imagined that the radiation pattern of a dipole is a donut cake , the
Monopole’s radiation pattern is a half eaten donut !! . In a dipole theta is
Defined from 0 to 180 , in monopoles theta is defined from 0 to 90 .

53
 Monopoles : Coaxial cables ( Coax )

Co – axial cables consists of a central and a ground plane , it is used to connect

The monopole to the load ( ex: a TV ) .

Central cable

Ground plane
Dielectric material

54
 Monopoles : Coaxial cables ( Coax )

We benefit from the ground plane of cable by welding it to the ground of monopole
And welding it to the ground of monopoles and welding the central cable to the
Wire ( the monopole ) .

Central cable

Ground plane
55
 Monopoles : Coaxial cables ( Coax )

We can even make a monopole from just a co – axial cable !

Central cable
And the pole of
The monopole Equivalent
Equivalenttoto
Antenna at the
Same time..

~ Ground plane
Of the monopole
And the ground
Plane of the coax
At the same time..
56
 Monopoles : Baluns

When we use a dipole instead of a monopole , we should use a balun , which

Is a device that converts a balanced system to an unbalanced system , the
Word balun is the abbreviation of “ Balanced
Bal to Unbalanced
Un converter “.

Balanced
Balun System

57
 2.5 . Disadvantages

An Electric field antenna , this means that the magnetic field “ H “ is

Zero at near field , this makes dipoles incompatible with portable
Combination .

Dipoles are balanced systems , this makes it difficult to mount them

On any device without the use of baluns .

58
 Practical Example

Try connecting a terminal of a cable like the one shown in the figure to
a port in your TV , the other terminal acts as a monopole ( but with a bad
Performance ) , and you can enjoy watching your TV …!!

59
 Practical Example

When designing your dipole or monopole , you can reduce the length of your

Design by covering it with a dielectric material with permittivity  , the length

Is reduced then by 1 / 

Dielectric
Dielectriccover
cover
Material…
Material…
Antenna
Antennawith
with
Reduced
Reducedlength
length. .

60
Chapter 3
Loop antenna

C.A.Balanis is one of
The most important
antenna scientists , and
Contributed with a
famous book
“Antenna theory”.
61
Loop Antennas
Outline

1. Introduction
2. Design Parameters
3. Equivalent Circuits
4. Loop antenna
Configurations
5. Applications in mobile
Communication system

Practical Example

62
 3.1. Introduction

As the dipole is the reference ( conventional ) electric field antenna , loops

Are the reference magnetic field antenna . Loop antennas can take different shapes
Like square , circle , triangle , ellipse or any other closed shape.

In dipoles current
i
When current
Moves till
Circulates in the
discontinuity
Loop it is obvious
occurs
And then radiates
That a magnetic
Field is produced. i
( Electric field ).

63
Introduction : Geometry

64
 Introduction : Radiation Pattern

A small loop is equivalent to an infinitesimal magnetic dipole , whose axis

Perpendicular to the plane of the loop.

The elevation and azimuth

Plane radiation pattern of a
Loop antenna .

65
Introduction : Radiation Pattern

The 3D radiation
Pattern of loop
Antenna , showing
The geometry of
The loop in blue.

66
Introduction : Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern

Of a loop for magnetic
Field , the dominant
Radiation is magnetic
And this is why
Loops are magnetic
Field antennas .

67
 Introduction

Types of loops are :

Electrically Small Electrically large

C <  / 10
C : circumference C ~ 

68
 3.2. Design Parameters

The radiation resistance of loop antennas is very small and sometimes

Less than the loss resistance , this makes them receivers rather than
Transmitters where signal to noise ratio is more important than efficiency .

Methods of increasing radiation resistance :

1 – Increasing its perimeter (electrically)

2 – Increasing number of turns
3 – Inserting a ferrite core with high
Permeability ( ferrite loops ).

69
 Design Parameters

Design parameters :

1 – Perimeter of the loop ( circumference).

2 – Increasing number of turns.

3 – Spacing between turns .

4 – Thickness .

5 – Presence of a ferrite core .

70
 Design Parameters

The effect of design parameters on added resistance :

Ron N=8
N=7 Ron : Normalized
Added resistance.
N=6
N : Number of turns

We seek a design with the

Minimum spacing and
Maximum turns to satisfy
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Spacing Maximum radiation resistance.
71
 Design Parameters

Impedance Resonance occurs

Resistance When the capacitance
And inductance
Vanishes and
resistance is maximum
This is the
Area we select the
Design within

Inductance
Reactance

Capacitance

Thickness to circumference ratio 72

 3.3. Equivalent Circuits

Transmitting mode As we saw the transmitting mode can be

modeled by a parallel resonance circuit

Zg Rl

+ Rr

Vg C

-
Xa

73
 Equivalent Circuits

Receiving mode
Zg

Z Vg
load
-

74
 3.4. Loop Antenna Configurations

Top – driven triangular Base – driven triangular

~ ~

Rectangular Circular

~ ~
75
 3.5. Loops in mobile communication

1 – Loops are alternative to monopoles , the most widely

Used element for hand held portable mobile
Communication.

2 – Loops are used in portable pagers , but very few in

Transceivers due to high resistance and inductance.

3 – Loops are very immune to noise , having low noise

To signal ratio makes them suitable for interfering
And fading environment.
76
Chapter 4
Yagi antenna

The Yagi Antenna is a

directional
antenna invented by
Dr. Hidetsugu
Yagi of Tohoku
Imperial
University and his
assistant, Dr. Shintaro Uta.

77
Yagi – Uda
Antennas

Outline

1 – Introduction
2 – Components
3 – Design procedure
4 – Advantages
5 – The folded dipole

78
 4.1 . Introduction

One of the most popular antennas used in home TV is the yagi uda array , it is
A very practical radiator in the HF ( 3 – 30 MHz ) , VHF ( 30 – 300 MHz) and
UHF ( 300 – 3000 MHz ) ranges .

The Yagi – uda antenna is primarily an array of linear dipoles with one element
Serving as the feed while the others act as parasitic elements .

79
 Introduction

This arrangement extends for arrays of loops , an antenna that is very popular
Among ham radio operators is the quad antenna .

Reflectors
Driven

~ 80
 4.2 . Components

The yagi uda antenna consists of a number of linear dipole elements :

-One of which is energized directly by a feed transmission line while the others act
as parasitic radiators whose currents are induced by mutual coupling .
-Parasitic radiators are divided into reflectors and directors.
-The feed element is usually a type of dipoles called a folded dipole used
For operation in the end fire mode .

Reflector
~ Driven
Directors

81
Components : geometry

82
Components : 3D display

83
 4.3 . Design procedure

To achieve the end fire mode the design is characterized by :

Parasitic elements in the direction of the beam are smaller than feed element
( directors )

The driven element is slightly less than / 2 ( ~ 0.45 – 0.49 )

The directors should be about ( ~ 0.4 – 0.45 ) ; less than the feed element

84
 Design procedure

The directors are not necessarily of the same length or diameter !

The separation between the directors is between 0.3 to 0.4 lambda .

A yagi uda array of 6 lambda total length was found to have an overall gain
Independent on the directors’ separation

The length of the reflector is somewhat greater than the feed element

85
 Design procedure

The separation between the feed element and the reflector is less than that of
The feed and the nearest director ( nearly 0.25 lambda )

Most antennas has from 6 to 12 directors .

86
Design procedure

The 3D radiation pattern

87
Design procedure

The 2D radiation pattern

88
Design procedure

The SWR plot of the yagi uda

89
4.4 . Advantages

Light weighted

Simple to build

Low cost .

90
 4.5 . The folded dipole

The folded dipole is frequently used as the feeding element

As it has good directional characteristics , it is
Recommended that the width << lambda . ~

91
Chapter 5
Reflector antenna

The first cassegrain

Reflector was designed
By Laurent cassegrain
In 1672 .

92
Reflector Outline

Antennas 1- Why Reflectors ?

2 – Types of reflectors
According to geometry

3 – Types of Parabolic
Surfaces

4 – Methods of feeding
Parabolic reflectors

5 – Using Image theory

To calculate field

6 – Using GTD to calculate

The field
93
 5.1. Why Reflectors ?

While using aperture antennas we always need to increase the aperture

Area to increase its directivity ,but as this is not practical , instead of using
Large apertures we place a reflecting surface face to face with the aperture
( or any other antenna ) , the reflecting surface collimates radiation to
The small aperture and thus we satisfied high directivity with a small
Aperture , and overcame space limitations.

A side view of
A side view of An aperture of
An aperture of A small area
A large area And a reflecting
Surface used.
94
 5.2. Types according to geometry

Plane reflectors Corner reflectors

Curved reflectors
95
Types according to geometry : 90 degree corner

To better collimate the energy in the forward direction , the geometrical shape
Of the plane reflector must be changed to prohibit radiation in the back and
Side directions .
The 90 degree – corner reflector has a unique property , the ray incident on
It reflects exactly in the same direction , so it is not used in military applications
To prevent radars from detecting airplanes positions.

96
 Types according to geometry

The
Themost
mostimportant
importantsoftware
softwareused
usedfor
forsimulating
simulatingreflector
reflectorantennas
antennasisis“Grasp”.
“Grasp”.

An
Anexample
examplefor foran
an
openGL
openGLplotplotfor
forall
all
objects
objectsofofaareflector
reflector
Antenna
Antenna usingGrasp
using Grasp99. .

97
 5.3. Types of parabolic surfaces

Parabolic Cylinder Hyperbola Parabola

Focus is a line Focus is a point

98
 5.4. Methods of feeding parabolic reflectors

Front – fed reflectors Offset reflectors Cassegrain fed Dual offset

99
 Methods of feeding parabolic reflectors

Why we use Offset reflectors ( single and dual ) ?

To avoid blockage caused by struts , we use half a dish and adjust the
Feeding element in a way that makes the antenna equivalent to a single
Reflector .

Why we use cassegrain fed reflectors ?

This increases the focal length and thus increases the directivity .

100
5.5.Using Image theory in calculating fields

We use the image theory to find a system of fields but

The GTD is more accurate because here we assume
Virtual sources .

2n : number of images , = 180 / n .

= 180 = 90 = 60

101
Using Image theory in calculating fields

E1
E2

E3

E4

En

Total field : E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + ……………….. En

102
5.6 . Using GTD in calculating fields

Using GTD instead of the image theory results in more accuracy

As we don’t assume virtual sources . The GTD (geometrical
Theory of diffraction) accounts for reflection and diffraction of
Rays after calculating the reflection and diffraction coefficients .

103
A satellite dish is a parabolic
reflector antenna

104
 Chapter 6
Microstrip antenna

Microstrip antennas
Are considered the
most practical antennas
For mobile communication !

105
Microstrip
Antennas Outline

1- Components
2- Types of microstrip
Antennas
3- Feeding techniques
4- Advantages
5- Disadvantages
6- Techniques to overcome
Disadvantages
7- Microstrip arrays
8- Feeding of arrays
9- Microstrip vs. reflectors.

106
 6.1. Components

AAmicrostrip
microstripantenna
antennaconsists
consistsofof: :

Patch ( radiating
Feed Element )

Dielectric
Ground plane
copper

The
Thepatch
patch((radiating
radiatingelement
element))may
maybe
becircular
circular, ,rectangular
rectangularor
orany
anyother
othershape
shape. .
107
 Components : Design parameters

Design
Designparameters
parameters: :((W 
W, ,LL, ,f f, ,)) , ,o
o==cc/ /f f , ,g
g== /
/

The
Themicrostrip
microstripantennas
antennashave
haveaamain
mainradiating
radiatingedge
edge, ,the
theother
otheredge
edgeisisweaker
weaker. .


W

108
L
 6.2 . Types of microstrip antennas

Open circuit microstrip Short circuit microstrip

-The
-Thepatch
patchisistotally
totallyisolated
isolated -The
-Thepatch
patchisisconnected
connectedtoto
From
Fromthe
theground
groundplaneplane The
Theground
ground
-Higher
-Higherefficiency
efficiencythanthanshort
short -Have
-Haveonly
onlyone
oneradiating
radiating
Circuit
Circuitmicrostrip
microstripantennas
antennas. . Edge
Edge. .
-Side
-Sidelength
lengthofofthethepatch
patchisis --Side
Sidelength
lengthisisg
g/ /44. .
g/ /2.2.
g
109
 Types of microstrip antennas

As
Asititisisdifficult
difficultto
tomanufacture
manufactureaashort
shortcircuit
circuitmicrostrip
microstripantenna
antenna, ,we
weuse
useshorting
shorting
Posts
Postsinstead
instead. .

Shorting
Shortingposts
postshave
have::
-Inductance
-Inductanceinineach
eachone
one
-Capacitance
-Capacitancebetween
betweenthem
them
>>As number of posts increase
As number of posts increase
Resonant
Resonantfrequency
frequencyincrease
increase. . Shorting
Posts

110
 6.3. Feeding techniques

Feeding by coupling

Microstrip line
Feed

Direct feeding by coaxial Aperture Proximity

Feed line ( probe ) coupled coupled
feed feed

111
 Feeding techniques : Direct feed by
coaxial fees line

The
Theinner
inner((central
central))ofofthe
thecoax
coaxisisattached
attachedtotothe
thepatch
patchwhile
while
The
Theouter
outerground
groundisiswelded
weldedtotothe
theground
groundofofthe
themicrostrip
microstrip
((like
likethe
themonopole
monopole)). .

Patch

Coaxial
Equivalent circuit 112
Feeding techniques : Microstrip feed line

ItItisisaaconducting
conductingstrip stripof
ofmuch
muchsmaller
smallerwidth
widthcompared
comparedto tothe
the
Patch
Patch, ,ititisiseasy
easytotofabricate
fabricateand
andsimple
simpletotomatch
match....

113
 Feeding techniques : feeding by coupling

Aperture Proximity
coupled coupled
feed feed

The
Themost
mostdifficult
difficulttotofabricate
fabricate
And
Andhas
hasaanarrow
narrowbandband, , Has
Hasaaband
bandwidthwidthofof13%
13%, ,
Depends
Dependson ontwo
twosubstrates
substratesand and however
howeverititisisdifficult
difficultto
tofabricate.
fabricate.
AAground
groundwith
withaaslot
slot. .

114
 6.4 . Advantages

11––High
Highaccuracy
accuracyininmanufacturing
manufacturing, ,the
thedesign
designisisexecuted
executedby
by
Photo
Photoetching
etching

22––Easy
Easytotointegrate
integratewith
withother
otherdevices
devices

33–– An
Anarray
arrayofofmicrostrip
microstripantennas
antennascan
canbe
beused
usedtotoform
formaa
Pattern
Patternthat
thatisisdifficult
difficulttotosynthesize
synthesizeusing
usingaasingle
singleelement.
element.

44–– We
Wecan
canobtain
obtainhigh
highdirectivity
directivityusing
usingmicrostrip
microstriparrays
arrays

115
 Advantages

55–– Have
Haveaamain
mainradiating
radiatingedge
edge, ,this
thismakes
makesitituseful
usefulfor
formobile
mobile
Phones
Phonesto
toavoid
avoidradiation
radiationinside
insidethe
thedevice
device. .

66––Small
Smallsized
sizedapplicable
applicablefor
forhandheld
handheldportable
portablecommunication
communication

77–– Smart
Smartantennas
antennaswhen
whencombined
combinedwith
withphase
phaseshifters
shifters. .

116
 6.5 . Disadvantages

11–– Narrow
Narrowband
bandwidth
width((1%
1%)), ,while
whilemobiles
mobilesneed
need((8%
8%))

22–– Low
Lowefficiency
efficiency, ,especially
especiallyfor
forshort
shortcircuited
circuitedmicrostrip
microstrip
antenna
antenna

33–– Some
Somefeeding
feedingtechniques
techniqueslike
likeaperture
apertureandandproximity
proximity
Coupling
Couplingare
aredifficult
difficultto
tofabricate
fabricate

44–– An
Anarray
arraysuffers
sufferspresence
presenceofoffeed
feednetwork
networkdecreasing
decreasing
Efficiency
Efficiency, ,also
alsomicrostrip
microstripantennas
antennasare
arerelatively
relativelyexpensive
expensive. .

117
 6.6 . Techniques for overcoming
disadvantages

Conventional techniques Non conventional techniques

1-
1- Decreasing
Decreasingdielectric
dielectric 1-
1- Aligned
Alignedparasitic
parasiticelements
elements
Constant
Constant 2- Using stacked parasitic
2- Using stacked parasitic
2-
2-Increasing
Increasingthickness
thickness Elements.
Elements.
3-
3-Increasing
Increasingwidth
width . .

118
 Techniques for overcoming
disadvantages : Aligned parasitic elements

Feeding
Feedingone onepatch
patchbybycoax
coax Patch #1 :
Probe
Probeand andthe
theother
othertwo
two Fed by coax
Patches
Patchesare arefed
fedby
bycoupling
coupling, , Feed line
This
Thismakes
makesthetheantenna
antennahashas Patch #2 , 3 :
Three
Threeresonating
resonatingfrequencies
frequencies Fed by
And
Andthe theultimate
ultimateresonance
resonance Coupling.
IsIsofofaawider
widerband
bandwidth.
width.
Single element Parasitic elements

119
 Techniques for overcoming
disadvantages : Stacked parasitic elements

Rather
Ratherthan
thanaligning
aligningthem
them, ,
We
Wecan
caneven
evencombine
combinethe thetwo
two
Methods
Methodsand
andmodulate
modulatethethe
Patch’s
Patch’sshape
shapetotoyield
yieldwidest
widest
Band width
Band width ..

120
 6.7 . Microstrip Arrays

2^n

Feed
Network

2^n
121
 Microstrip Arrays

The
Theoptimum
optimumspacing 0.8,
spacingisis0.8 ,length
lengthmust
mustbe <=ooto
be<= toavoid
avoid
Multiple
Multiplegrating
gratinglobes
lobesand
andalsoalsomust
mustbe
be>=
>=lambda
lambda/ /22..

Advantages of microstrip arrays

11––Used
Usedto
tosynthesize
synthesizeaarequired
requiredpattern
patterndifficult
difficulttotoachieve
achievewith
with
AAsingle
singleelement.
element.

22–– Used
Usedto
toscan
scanthe
thebeam
beamofofan
anantenna
antennasystem
system

33–– Increases
Increasesdirectivity
directivity. .

122
 Microstrip Arrays

Disadvantages of microstrip arrays

11–– Narrow
Narrowbandwidth
bandwidth((11%
%)). .

22–– Low
Lowefficiency
efficiency

33–– IfIfthe
theseparation
separationisismore
morethan
thanlambda
lambda, ,grating
gratinglobes
lobesappear
appear

44–– Feed
Feednetwork
networkdecreases
decreasesefficiency
efficiency. .

123
 6.8 . Feeding of arrays

AAmicrostrip
microstripantenna
antennauses
usesfeed
feednetwork
networkwhich
whichmay
maybe
beeither
either::

1 – Series feed

2 – Corporate feed .

Sometimes
Sometimesfeed
feednetworks
networksare
aresynthesized
synthesizedwith
withthe
theantenna
antenna! !

124
Feeding of arrays : Series feed

Series feed

125
Feeding of arrays : Corporate feed

Corporate feed

126
 6.9 . Microstrip vs. Reflectors

Microstrip Antennas Reflector Antennas

Preferred for low directivity

Performed for high directivity
applications
applications as the effect of blockage
Is less
Lower efficiency Higher efficiency

Suffers low efficiency caused by

Suffers blockage caused by fixation
Feed network for arrays
Struts
127
 Microstrip vs. Reflectors

Microstrip Antennas Reflector Antennas

Smart antennas , uses electronic

Uses mechanical scanning .
scanning when combined with phase
Shifters

More accurate manufacturing by Less accuracy , sometimes parabolic

photo etching Surfaces are rough

Feeding is by coupling or coax feed

Uses other antenna ( dipole ,
Lines monopole , apertures , …..etc) as
A feed 128
Flat plane Microstrip Antenna

129
Chapter 7
Fractal antenna

Fractal antennas are

Very compact as they
Utilize the same
Physical area of classic
Antennas but with an
Electrically large length !
130
 Fractal
Antennas

Outline

1 – Definition
2 – Characteristics
3 – Types of fractals
4 – Advantages

131
 7.1 - Definition

AAfractal
fractalantenna
antennaisisan anantenna
antennathat
thatuses
usesaafractal,
fractal,self-similar
self-similardesign
design
totomaximize
maximizethethelength,
length,ororincrease
increasethe
theperimeter
perimeter
(on
(oninside
insidesections
sectionsororthe
theouter
outerstructure),
structure),of
ofmaterial
materialthat
that
can
canreceive
receiveor ortransmit
transmitelectromagnetic
electromagneticsignals
signalswithin
withinaagiven
given
total
totalsurface
surfacearea
areaororvolume.
volume.[[source
source::wikipedia
wikipedia]]

AAfractal
fractalisis::aarecursively
recursivelygenerated
generatedgeometry
geometrythat
thathas
hasfractional
fractional
Dimensions.
Dimensions.

132
Definition : fractal generation

Some
Somesoftware
softwareproducts
products
can
cangenerate
generatefractals
fractals
And
Andfractal
fractalmaps
maps,,the
the
Opposite
Oppositefigure
figureshows
shows
AAkoch
kochloop
loopafter
afterseveral
several
Iterations
Iterations..

133
 7.2 – Characteristics

AAfractal
fractalantenna's
antenna'sresponse
responsediffers
differsmarkely
markelyfrom
fromtraditional
traditionalantenna
antennadesigns,
designs,inin
that
thatititisiscapable
capableofofoperating
operatingwith withgood-to-excellent
good-to-excellentperformance
performanceatatmany
many
different
differentfrequencies
frequenciessimultaneously.
simultaneously.Normally
Normallystandard
standardantennas
antennashavehavetotobe
be"cut"
"cut"for
for
the
thefrequency
frequencyforforwhich
whichtheytheyareareto
tobe
beused—and
used—andthusthusthe
thestandard
standard
antennas
antennasonly onlywork
workwell
wellatatthat
thatfrequency.
frequency.This
Thismakes
makesthe thefractal
fractalantenna
antennaan an
excellent
excellentdesign
designfor forwideband
widebandand andmultiband
multibandapplications.
applications.

134
 Characteristics

Fractal
Fractalantennas
antennassatisfies
satisfiesthe
therequirements
requirementsof
ofwireless
wirelesscommunication
communication
Systems
Systems::

1 – Wideband

2 – Multiband

3 – Low profile

4 – Small antenna
135
 Characteristics

The
Theband
bandwidth
widthof
ofan
anantenna
antennacan
canbe
beimproved
improvedas asthe
thegeometry
geometryof ofthe
the
The
Theantenna
antennabest
bestutilizes
utilizesthe
theavailable
availableplanar
planararea
areaof
ofaacircle
circleof
ofradius
radiusrr
That
Thatencloses
enclosesthe
theantenna
antenna..

Fractal
Fractalantennas
antennasutilizes
utilizesthe
theavailable
availablespace
spaceininaasphere
sphereofofradius
radius rrininan
an
Efficient
Efficientway
way

The
Thequality
qualityfactor
factorQQisisinversely
inverselyproportional
proportionalwith
withthe
theband
bandwidth.
width.

136
 Characteristics

The
Theconcept
conceptofoffractals
fractalsisisfrequently
frequentlyused
usedininelectromagnetism
electromagnetism, ,and
andalso
alsoused
used
To represent nature
To represent nature ..

A Fern fractal
Represents a plant

137
 7.3 – Types of fractals

Fractals may be:

Deterministic Random

-Von Koch snowflake

- Sierpinski gaskets
- Minkowski island

138
 Types of fractals : Koch loop

Fractals
Fractalsthat
thatbegin
beginwith
withaabasic
basicgeometry
geometry(initiator)
(initiator)and
anduses
usesaarecursive
recursive
Algorithm
Algorithmttproduce
producecopies
copiesof
ofthemselves
themselves..

Initiator Generator

139
 Types of fractals : Koch loop

Iterations 1 2 3

140
Types of fractals : Minkowski island

A Minkowski island after more iterations

A Minkowski island
As plotted by the directx display of 4nec2
Software ( by Arie voor )
141
 Types of fractals : Sierpinski gaskets

Determined by the nodes of a Pascal triangle which are numbered by

the excitation coefficients of the binomial array decided by J.S.stone

((11++xx))^^((m
m––11))==11++((m
m-1
-1))**xx++((((m
m––11))((m
m––22))((xx^^22))))//2!
2!
++((((mm––11))((mm––22))((mm––33))((xx^^33))))/ /3!3!+….
+….

1 element 2 elements
3 elements
2M + 1 = 1 2M = 2
2M +1 = 3
M=0 M=1
A1 = 1 A1 = 1 , A2 = 1
142
 Types of fractals : Sierpinski gaskets

The Pascal triangle

143
 Types of fractals : Sierpinski gaskets

IfIfthe
thenodes
nodeswith
withnumbers
numbersdivisible
divisiblebybyaaprime
primenumber
numberpp((pp==22, ,33, ,55, ,………)
………)
isisdeleted
deletedthe
theresult
resultisisaasierpinski
sierpinskigasket
gasketofofmod-p
mod-p

144
Types of fractals : Random fractals

145
 7.4 – Advantages

Fractal
Fractalantennas
antennasresults
resultsininmore
morecompact
compactantennas
antennas,,but
butcan
canresonate
resonate
And
Andhas
hasinput
inputresistance
resistancethat
thatare
aremuch
muchgreater
greaterthan
thanclassic
classicgeometries
geometries
OfOfloops
loopsand
anddipoles
dipoles

The
Thefirst
firstresonance
resonancefor
for aalinear
lineardipole
dipoleoccurs
occursat
atlambda
lambda//22overall
overalllength
length
Which
Whichcan
canbe
bephysically
physicallylarge
largefor
forsome
somefrequencies
frequencies

146
 Advantages

The
Thehigher
higheriterative
iterativegeometries
geometries,,the
thelower
lowerresonant
resonantfrequencies
frequenciesbecause
because
Its
Itsoverall
overalllength
lengthbecomes
becomeselectrically
electricallylarge
large..

147