Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(EN-613)
Instructor
Dr. Sumit Sinha Ray
Course Structure and regulations
Lecture based
No experiments
2 quizzes, 1 presentation, 1 final examination
Quiz- 20 pts each, Presentation- 20 pts, Final examination-40pts
Quiz- no open book (just can carry one page of formulae)
Presentation- case based, single presentation, 5min talk+3 min questions (Maximum 8 slides)
Final examination- No open book, may carry one page of formulae only if instructed
No homework.
PPTs are mostly for illustration and hence students are discouraged to read from PPT only and expect exam questions
from them.
70% attendance is mandatory. If any student lacks in this criterion he/she must get permission from Dean Academics to
sit in final examination
Read- 1. Mechanical Metallurgy by George E. Dieter, McGraw-Hill Book Company
2. High Temperature Deformation and Fracture of Materials by Jun-Shan Zhang, Woodhead Publishing
and Other relevant papers.
Office hour - Thursday 4-5 pm, office A6-16. Meeting only, no phone calls will be entertained.
Course content before quiz 1 (tentative 06.09.18) Course content before quiz 2 (Tentative 11.10.18)
Topics of presentation will be discussed 3 weeks before final examination and presentation date will be 15.11.18
06.08.18, Lecture1
What is Creep?
Creep is tendency of materials to move slowly or deform plastically under mechanical stress, especially,
When it’s subjected to heat, close to their melting point.
The original Koror–Babeldaob Bridge of Japan was a balanced cantilever before after
prestressed concrete box girder bridge with a main span of 240.8 m and total
length of 385.6 m (1265 ft). And was the longest of its kind till 1985. Creep had
caused the midline of the bridge to sag 1.2 meters. Even with cosmetic
resurfacing and reinforcements the bridge suddenly collapsed on September 26,
1996.
What is Fatigue
Fatigue is mode of weakening caused by repeatedly applied loads, mostly cyclic loads and it’s progressive
in nature.
The semi-submersible “flotel” (floating hotel) Alexander L. Kielland capsized on 27 March 1980 while
bridge connected to the steel jacket Ekofisk Edda platform. The flotel lost one of its five legs in
severe gale force winds, but not an extreme storm. The accident started with one of the bracings
failing due to fatigue, thereby causing a succession of failures of all bracings attached to this leg.
Onset of Failure Analysis Studies
The Versailles rail accident occurred on May 8, 1842 in the cutting
between Meudon and Bellevue stations on the railway between
Versailles and Paris, France. Following King Louis Philippe I's
celebrations at the Palace of Versailles, a train returning to Paris
derailed at Meudon, after the leading locomotive broke an axle, and the
carriages behind piled into it and caught fire. The first French railway
accident and the deadliest in the world at the time, it caused between
52 and 200 deaths. The accident led the French to abandon the practice
of locking passengers in their carriages.
Elastic deformation
Particle coarsening
Testing Inspection
This plane had an enlarged horizontal stabilizer (tailplane) assembly compared to earlier model , and in the redesign the
increased loads on the tailplane structure had been taken by replacing some of the aluminium skinning with stainless steel.
In addition, the spar attachment fittings had been redesigned, making them both stronger and stiffer. This had the
unforeseen effect of changing the way the tailplane structure handled gust loads, the stiffer fittings being no longer able to
help in absorbing and transferring the stresses caused by gusts and other normal aerodynamic loads, the flexure (i.e., the
bending loads) of the left and right horizontal stabilizers instead having to be carried by the stabiliser spars entirely by
themselves. This led over time to fatigue cracking in the right horizontal stabiliser's rear spar, which, due to the concealed
(internal) nature of the tailplane construction, was not noticed by maintenance engineers.
The 707 had been designed to a 'fail-safe' philosophy, and failure of the tailplane rear spar had been calculated to be
insufficient to cause the loss of the aircraft, the remaining front spar being sufficiently strong to enable the aircraft to land
safely, the damage then being expected to be repaired before the aircraft was re-flown.
09.08.2018, Lecture 2
Stress-Strain Relationship
Fracture stress
Hooke’s Law
E
E= Young’s Modulus
Plastic deformation
Rest from class discussion………
Basics of Stress
P
lim
A 0 A
L
e Average Linear Strain
L0 L0
Lf
dL Lf
However often useful to express strain by instantaneous gage length L
ln
L0
L0
Angular change causing Shear Strain True Strain
a
tan() (= for small angles)
h
Displacement of point Q Linear Strain
8/14/18, Lecture3
Deformation
Elastic limit
K n K is stress at 1
n is strain hardening exponent
Highly cold-worked material Rigid ideal plastic material Linear strain hardening material
L
L
dL L
Conventional strain e True strain ln
L0 L0
L L0
Pure hydrostatic pressure or mean stress tensor doesn’t cause yielding in metals
Only the deviatoric stress which represents the shear stresses causes plastic flow
For an isotropic solid, the yield criterion must be independent of the choice of the axes, i.e.,
The unit vectors a, b and c are called lattice parameters. Based on their length
equality or inequality and their orientation (the angles between them, , and ) a
total of 7 crystal systems can be defined. With the centering (face, base and body
centering) added to these, 14 kinds of 3D lattices, known as Bravais lattices, can be
generated
Crystal Systems
Crystal Systems
Crystal Systems
Things you have studied
Inter-planar Spacing:
2 h k l
1 1 2 2 2
2
d a
Things you have studied
BCC vs FCC
BCC FCC
Coordination number- 8 Coordination number- 12
Effective no. of atoms – Effective no. of atoms –
1/8 X (neighboring atoms)+ center atoms 1/8 X (neighboring atoms)+1/2 X (6 face atoms)
Atomic packing fraction- 0.68 Atomic packing fraction- 0.74
4r
a
3 a 2r 2
8/21/18, Lecture 5
Lattice Defects
Screw
Dislocation
Line
Dislocation
Imperfections Edge
Lattice Defects
Lattice Dislocation
Grain Boundary
Imperfections
Point Surface
Stacking Fault
Imperfections Imperfections
Twinning
Dislocation
Responsible for slip, causing plastic deformation
Dislocation
C has moved
D hasn’t
one atomic
moved yet
distance
Edge Screw
Position of 1: 0=symmetry
b=symmetry Shear stress is zero
b/2=symmetry
Slip by Dislocation
Movement of
an edge
dislocation
W Elastic energy
Peierls-Nabarro Stress (Lattice Friction)
A dislocation can be considered like a hollow cylinder, where stress and strain are smooth functions
of 1/r, r being the dislocation core radius and as r converges, the elastic stress and strain diverges.
A realistic consideration is
r0 ≥1 nm
Peierls-Nabarro Stress (Lattice Friction)
Though the P-N original formula has been superseded by more sophisticated theoretical models and computational
calculations; it worthwhile noting that if the core of the dislocation is planar then the Peierls stress can be described
by an exponential function similar to the one originally conceived by Peierls. Additionally, a better feel can obtained
for the PN stress by connecting the width of the dislocation to the bonding characteristics of the material.
Critical Resolved Shear Stress
P cos P
R cos cos
A cos A
What is the similarity between P-N Stress and Critical resolved shear stress?
Effects
dynamic
recovery
easy glide
Dislocation Dislocation
Cross slip
pile-up barrier
strain
hardening
Bauschinger Foreign
effect particle
1
Sessile 0 Gb 2
dislocation
8/23/18, Lecture 6
Detection of
dislocations
Chemical Visual
Screw type
Edge type
Dislocations often form a loop by interlocking and can lie in any plane and can easily be resolved in
edge and screw dislocation
Dislocations and cross slip
Positive edge
b1 b 2 b3 if b12 b 22 b32
Solve!!!
Is this feasible??
Dislocation in FCC
Shockley Partial
Dislocation in FCC
Burger vector b1 can dissociate in b2 and b3 following the
previous problem, which is energetically favorable
Lomer-Cottrell Barrier
Stress fields and energies of dislocations
It’s very hard to predict the forces near the core using our standard elastic
theory
Our approximations are valid for a small length at a curved dislocation, whereas
curved dislocations have more energy than straight one
No deformation in x and Y
Volterra Tube
Stress fields and energies of dislocations
We do not consider any tensile or compressive stress in solving stress fields of screw dislocation. ( any idea why?)
Volterra Tube
Cross sectional view
Largest normal stress is along x axis and shear stress is maximum for y=0
Stress fields and energies of dislocations
F b
Dislocation Climb Jogs/Kinks
Boundaries between grains are distorted regions in a polycrystalline aggregate only few atomic spacing apart.
Grain boundaries
Beyond one-half of melting point, deformation by sliding can occur at grain boundaries and this become more
prominent at increasing temperature with decreasing strain rate, like in Creep.
The deciding temperature is called Equicohesive temperature, above which grain boundaries are
weak and below which grain interior is weak than grain boundary
Now question is- what kind of grain structure will you choose to tackle creep? Say for , some steel the melting
temperature is 1600 deg C and equicohesive temperature is 795 deg C. The material is supposed to be exposed at
900 deg C for most of its service life.
Hall-Petch Relation
𝜎0 = 𝜎𝑖 + 𝑘𝐷 −0⋅5
Its’s a general relationship between yield stress and grain sizes, where, 𝝈𝟎 is the yield stress, 𝝈𝒊 is the friction
stress, i.e. the overall resistance of crystal lattice to dislocation movement, 𝒌 is the relative hardening
contribution of grain boundaries and D is grain diameter.
It was initially originated to formulate yield point dependence of low carbon steel on grain boundary size.
The biggest issue with this relationship is for a very small grain size of about 4 nm, this would predict yield
strength close to theoretical one. However, the pile up stress that is considered to derive this equation, must
contain more than 50 dislocations.
Low angle grain boundaries are high energy boundaries those encircle
substructures inside grains
Edge
dislocations
Origin of LAGB
High temperature
Creep deformation
Low angle grain boundaries
Higher yield stress than just cold reduce or annealed
Yield point phenomenon
Carbon or nitrogen atoms in iron readily diffuse to the position of minimum energy
just below the extra plane of atoms in a positive edge dislocation. The elastic
interaction is so strong that the impurity atmosphere becomes completely
saturated and condenses into a row of atoms along the core of the dislocation.
When the dislocation line is pulled free from the influence of the solute atoms,
slip can occur at a lower stress
The magnitude of the yield-point effect will depend on the interaction energy, and the concentration of solute
atoms at the dislocations.
Solid solution strengthening
Solid solution
Substitutional Interstitial
Solute Atom
Interaction
Stacking
Elastic Modulus Short-range Long- range
fault
Strengthening from fine particles
Dispersion hardening
Precipitation hardening
Hard particles mixed with the
matrix Second phase particle forms
A common practice in solid solution at higher
hardening for powder temperature but precipitates
metallurgy at lower temperature
No coherency between matrix There is atomic matching
and second phase particle between solute and matrix
Can be infinite combinations Limited precipitation
to strengthen by powder hardening systems.
metallurgy techniques
Cu-Al system
8/30/18 Lecture 8
What is Fracture?
Fracture is fragmentation of solid body into two or more parts under stress
Appreciable plastic
Crack Ductile deformation prior to and
initiation during propagation of crack:
Observed in FCC metals
Fracture
Strain to
Crystallographic Appearance
fracture
Can be drawn to
Controlled by
Cleavage a single point;
tensile stress Surface Separation
Result of surface looks or can produce
acting normal fractured by normal to
extensive bright due to a necked region
to shear looks the tensile
slip by shear reflection of before rupture;
crystallographic gray stress
light Cup and cone
cleavage plane
fracture
Questions:
1. What is the maximum crack size that a material can sustain safely?
2. What is the strength of structure as a function of crack size?
3. How does the crack size relate to the applied loads?
4. What is the critical load required to extend a crack of known size, and is the
crack extension stable or unstable?
Cohesive strength of metals
For ellipse
Assumptions:
1. Material is already populated with cracks to raise stress concertation
2. As one crack propagates to brittle fracture it produces an elastic energy to overcome cohesive strength, i.e.
it requires surface energy as a function of elastic strain energy.
Stress concentration
Deciding
(recall previous class)
Dislocation theory of brittle fracture
Plastic deformation which involves the pile-up of dislocations along their slip planes at an obstacle
The buildup of shear stress at the head of the pile-up to nucleate a microcrack
In some cases the stored elastic strain energy drives the microcrack to complete fracture without further
dislocation movement in the pile-up
considerable energy
usually preceded by a localized reduction in diameter called necking
Void Coalescence
Void sheet
Spherical particles enhances ductility and thereby
reduces fracture
Fine rounded particles are resistant to void
formation
resistance to ductile fracture (ductility) varies
greatly with orientation in a rolled sheet or plate.
cup-and-cone fracture
Effect of high hydrostatic pressure
Triaxial compressive stress (hydrostatic pressure) resists fracture and increases the ductility.
Hydrostatic component of stress exerts no shear stress, it cannot increase the number of dislocations in a pile-
up or squeeze them closer together.
Compressive hydrostatic stresses act to close up small pores or separations at phase interfaces and generally
make the fracture-propagation process more difficult.
High hydrostatic pressure does not suppress the fracture of carbides in Fe-FeC system, but it does reduce void
growth in the ferrite matrix
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP), is used commercially to close porosity in castings and powder metallurgy parts and
improve the ductility and toughness.
Notch Effect
Notch creates a local stress peak at the root of the notch. Plastic flow begins at the notch root
when this local stress reaches the yield strength of the material. The plastic flow relieves the
high elastic stress and limits the peak stress to the yield stress of the material. However, the
chief effect of the notch is not in introducing a stress concentration but in producing a triaxial
state of stress at the notch.
nominal< yield
x=0, x=0
for no constraint
at one side
x=0, x=0, 0 y : it takes a higher value of
longitudinal stress y to produce yielding in
a notched specimen
Plane strain condition
strong function of B
Notch Effect
Triaxial stress state produced by the notch results in general yield stress greater than the uniaxial yield stress s0
because it is more difficult to spread the yielded zone in the presence of triaxial stresses.
The triaxial stress state of a notch results in "notch-strengthening" in a ductile metal, but in a material prone to brittle
fracture the increased tensile stresses from the plastic constraint can exceed the critical value for fracture before the
material undergoes general plastic yielding
A notch increases the tendency for brittle fracture in four important ways:
By producing high local stresses
By introducing a triaxial tensile state of stress
By producing high local strain hardening and cracking
By producing a local magnification to the strain rate
Stress Intensity Factor
Where, =P/w.t
At crack tip
local stresses near a crack depend on the product of the nominal stress and the square root of the
half-flaw length. This relationship is called the stress intensity factor K, K a
Mode I Mode II Mode II
• Crack opening • Sliding mode/ forward • Tearing/anti-plane /parallel
• Most important for design shear mode shear mode
aspects • Shear stress is applied • Shear stress is applied
• Plane stress/Plane strain normal to leading edge of parallel to leading edge of
type crack crack
• KIC for plane strain is more
important than plane strain
• Used to describe for fracture
toughness
Fracture Toughness and Design
Plasticity Correction
The crack-tip displacement concept considers that the material ahead of the crack contains a series of miniature tensile
specimens having a gage length l and a width w
Widespread plasticity at the crack tip enables the crack surfaces to move
apart at the crack tip without an increase in crack length. This relative
movement of the two crack faces at a distance removed from the crack tip is
called the Crack-opening Displacement (COD)