Pixel-Based Processing: ECE 847: Digital Image Processing Stan Birchfield Clemson University

Pixel-Based Processing
ECE 847: Stan Birchfield

Digital Image Processing Clemson University
Challenge
original image detect objects, classify fruit,

find banana stem
Steps:
1. binarize / threshold
2. clean up binary image
3. find regions corresponding to foreground objects
4. compute properties of regions
5. classify regions based on properties
S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

Outline
• Pixel-based image transformations
(thresholding, …)
• Removing noise from binary image

(morphological operators)
• Labeling regions
(floodfill, connected components)
• Computing distance in an image

(chamfer distance, …)
• Region properties
(area and boundary properties)

What is a digital image?
75 81 83 96 94
62 74 76 87 100
74 76 80 89 93
53 67 86 90 105
60 77 90 99 115

Accessing pixels in an image
Timing Test
(640 x 480 image,
get/set each pixel
C / C++ using 2.8 GHz P4)
• Method 1: 1D array
val = p[ y * width + x]; 6.6 ms
val = p[y][x]; 5.6 ms
• Method 3: pointers
val = *p++; 0.5 ms
(even faster with SIMD operations)
Matlab
21.4 ms
val = im(y,x);
• Method 2: parallelize
im = im + constant; 2.5 ms

Outline
(thresholding, …)



Types of image
transformations
• Graylevel transforms
I’(x,y)  f( I(x,y) )
(arithmetic, logical, thresholding, histogram
equalization, …)
• Geometric transforms
I’(x,y)  f( I(x’,y’) )
(flip, flop, rotate, scale, …)
• Area-based transforms
I’(x,y)  f( I(x,y), I(x+1,y+1), … )
(morphological operators, convolution)
• Global transforms
I’(x,y)  f( I(x’,y’), x’,y’ )
A
(Fourier transform, wavelet transform)
Graylevel transforms
identity inverse contrast threshold

enhancement

Geometric transforms

Histograms
image histogram
Throws away all spatial information!

Histogram equalization

Running sum
Step 1: Initialize 1D array
int hist[256]
...
Step 2: Compute running sum

sum[0] = 0
for g = 1 to 255,
sum[g] = sum[g-1] + hist[g]
Example:
[ 6 3 9 7 4 2]  [6 9 18 25 29 31]

Histogram equalization
pdf
Steps:
1. Compute normalized histogram (PDF) equal area
int hist[256] = 0…0
float norm[256]
for x, hist[ I(x) ]++
for g = 0 to 255,
norm[g] = hist[g] / npixels
cdf
2. Compute cumulative histogram (CDF)
new gray level

cum[0] = norm[0]
for g = 1 to 255, equal spacing
cum[g] = cum[g-1] + norm[g]
3. Transform
for x, I(x) = 255*cum[ I(x) ]
running sum old gray level

Histogram equalization *
PDF desired
p
PDF
p’
equal area equal area
a a’ a’+d new gray level k’

CDF
d{ By definition,
new gray level k’
q
d{ q 1 ( a ' d )
a’
equal  1
q ( a ')
p( x)dx
spacing
 q(q 1 (a'd ))  q(q 1 (a' ))
old gray level k

d
where p is the PDF and q is the CDF

PDF desired
p PDF
equal area
p’
1/(L-1)
a b L-1 a’ a’+d L-1

old gray level k new gray level k’
scaled CDF
b
 p (k )dk  q (b)  q(a )
L-1
q·(L-1)
d{
new gray level k’
a
a’  a'd  a ' /( L  1)
 d /( L  1)
a 'd
 p' (k )dk '
a'
L-1
old gray level k
PDF desired
p PDF
equal area
p’
1/(L-1)
a1 b1 a2 b2 L-1 a1’ a1’+d a2’ a2’+d L-1

new gray level k’
scaled CDF
d
b
 p (k )dk  q (b)  q(a )
L-1
{
a2’ q·(L-1)
d{
new gray level k’
a
a1’  a'd  a ' /( L  1)
 d /( L  1)
a 'd
 p' (k )dk '
a'
L-1
old gray level k
Integral image
• Integral image is a 2D running sum
• S(x,y) = SS I(x,y)
• To compute,
S(x,y) = I(x,y)
- S(x-1,y-1) + S(x-1,y) + S(x,y-1)
• To use,
V(l,t,r,b) = S(l,t) + S(r,b) - S(l,b) - S(r,t)
Returns sum of values inside rectangle
• Note: Sum of values in any rectangle
can be computed in constant time!

Thresholding
Valley separates
light from dark
How to find it?

A simple thresholding
algorithm
Repeat until convergence:

T  ½ (m1 + m2)
T. Ridler and S. Calvard, Picture Thresholding Using an Iterative Selection Method, IEEE
Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 8(8):630--632, August 1978.
Ridler-Calvard algorithm

Otsu’s method
• Threshold t splits image into two groups

• Calculate within-group variance of each
group
• Search over all t to minimize total within-
group variance; moment calculations
make search efficient
 w2 (t )  q1 (t ) 12 (t )  q2 (t ) 22 (t )
percentage of pixels variance of pixels

in first group in first group

Otsu’s method

Local Entropy
Thresholding (LET) *
• Compute co-occurrence matrix

• Threshold s divides matrix into
four quadrants
• Pick s that maximizes
HBB(s)+HFF(s)
s s
H BB ( s)   p BB
ij log p BB
ij
i 0 j 0
• Uses spatial information

Otsu vs. LET *
image histogram Otsu LET

Adaptive thresholding
background image histogram
from Gonzalez and Woods, p. 597

Double thresholding
graylevel
(hysteresis)
threshold too high:
misses part of object
object 1 object 2
threshold too low:

captures noise
noise
pixel
Algorithm:
1. Threshold with high value
2. Threshold with low value, retaining only the
pixels that are contiguous with existing ones
Double thresholding example
1. Use high threshold

low threshold high threshold
to get seed pixel
3. Repeat
2. Floodfill
using seed pixel
Double thresholding example
image low threshold retains some background
high threshold removes some foreground combined using floodfill on low threshold
with seeds from high threshold
Double thresholding
We will explain Floodfill later

Outline
(thresholding, …)



Binary image as a set

Set operations
Fundamental
operators
Other
operators
DeMorgan’s
Laws

Minkowski operators
Minkowski
addition:
Minkowski
subtraction:

Minkowski addition
Add each element of B

to each element of A1
Minkowski subtraction
Intersection of translating
A2 to every point in B
Two examples:

Minkowski addition:
“Center-out” approach
(“center-out” is more intuitive)

Minkowski subtraction:
“Center-out” approach
(“center-out” is more intuitive)

Morphological operations
• morphology – study of form or shape

• Mathematical morphology – grew out
of research at Fontainebleau in 1964
• We will deal only with binary images
• Two fundamental operations:
Dilation and Erosion
(same as Mink. add.)
(same as Mink. sub.
B is the structuring element (SE) after reflection)
Dilation
• Algorithm (center-out):
– Flip B horizontally and vertically
(but often B is symmetric, so nothing is changed)
– Move B around
– Anywhere they intersect, turn center pixel on
• Looks like nonlinear convolution

Erosion
• Algorithm (center-out):
– Move B around Duality b/w dilation
– If there is not complete overlap, and erosion:
turn center pixel off

Common structuring
elements
• Usually SE is either B4 or B8
• Greatly simplifies algorithm
(and erosion is same as Min. sub.)

Dilation example
Let B be 3x3 with all 1s. B

for y
for x
if ( in(x-1, y)
|| in(x-1, y-1)
|| in(x-1, y+1)
...
|| in(x+1, y+1)
)
out(x, y) = 1
else
out(x, y) = 0 A

Erosion example
Let B be 3x3 with all 1s. B

for y
for x
if ( in(x-1, y)
&& in(x-1, y-1)
&& in(x-1, y+1)
...
&& in(x+1, y+1)
)
out(x, y) = 1
else
out(x, y) = 0
A

Why does dilation require flipping
the structuring element?
Simple example:
A B
Without flipping With flipping
 
Result is flipped! Fixed!

Closing and Opening
• Dilation fills gaps. Erosion removes noise
• Combine them:
– First dilate, then erode (closing)
– First erode, then dilate (opening)
• Closing/opening retain object size

• Repeated applications do nothing
• Duality between closing and opening

Closing and Opening
Closing: dilate, then erode
Opening: erode, then dilate

Morphology Example
thresholded difference open erode

dilate
close
open
then close
Accessing out-of-bounds
pixels
• If kernel is near boundary of image, some pixels of kernel
will be out of bounds (OOB)
• What to do?
– Do not use OOB pixels (change kernel size near boundary)
– Do not compute output for pixels near boundary
– Extend image function:
• zero pad – OOB pixels have value of zero
• replicate – OOB pixels have value of closest pixel
• reflect – pixel values are extended by mirror reflection at border
• wrap – pixel values are extended by repeating
• extrapolate – pixel values are extended by extrapolating function
near boundary
• No solution is best
• Problem also occurs with convolution

Outline
(thresholding, …)



Binary images
• Each pixel is ON or OFF

• We will say that foreground pixels are ON,
background pixels are OFF
• In computer, each pixel has value of 0 or
1.
• We adopt convention that 0=OFF, 1=ON.
• Usually 0=black and 1=white, but
sometimes display is reversed

Neighbors
4-neighbors 8-neighbors diagonal neighbors
N4 N8 ND

Adjacency
• 4-adjacency: q  N4 ( p) p q
• 8-adjacency: q  N8 ( p) p
q
• m-adjacency: q  N4 ( p) or
q  N D ( p) and N4 ( p)  N4 (q)  
Example:
48m
Adjacency
Use different connectedness for
foreground and background to avoid
inconsistency
foreground: D8
background: D4
dumbbell

Connectivity, Regions and
Boundaries
• path from p to q is sequence of adjacent
pixels
• p and q are connected in subset S if path
exists between them containing only
pixels in S
• connected component of p is set of pixels
in S that are connected to p
• S is a region if it is a connected set
• boundary of S is the set of pixel in S that
have one or more neighbors not in S
Boundary definitions
binary outer outer outer

image region hole complete
boundary boundary boundary
inner inner inner

region hole complete
boundary boundary boundary
Floodfill
• Fill a region with a new color
– Start with a seed point
– All pixels are colored if they have the same
color as the seed and are connected to the
seed via pixels that have the same color as the
seed
seed pixel

Floodfill *
Repeated applications of dilation can fill a region
image A structuring complement Ac

element B
... but terribly inefficient S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847
Floodfill
Efficient implementation uses a stack called the frontier.
Function image =
Floodfill(seed_point,
image,
new_color)
old_color = image(seed_point)
if (old_color == new_color) return
frontier.Push(seed_point)
image(seed_point) = newcolor
while (NOT frontier.IsEmpty())
q = frontier.Pop();
for each neighbor r of q,
if image(r) == old_color,
frontier.Push(r)
image(r) = new_color
return image
frontier:
Floodfill

Floodfill
This code performs the same logic,

but does not change the pixels of the input image
Revisit:
Double thresholding

Connected components
• Recall that connected component of

p is set of pixels in S that are
connected to p
• Can solve the problem by repeated
applications of Floodfill – assigning a
new label to each new region
• Slightly more efficient
implementation involves two passes
through the image (union-find)
Connected components using
floodfill

Classical union-find connected
component labeling algorithm
scan left-to-right, top-to-bottom
U
L P
4-neighbor I(P) == I(U) ?
algorithm: I(P) == I(L) ? YES NO
YES C(P)=C(U) and C(P)=C(L)

set Equiv(U,L)
NO C(P)=C(U) C(P)=n++
4-neighbor 8-neighbor
mask: mask:
Classical connected
components: first pass
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 0
0 0 0 1 0 3 3 3 2 4
0 1 1 1 0 3 5 5 2 4
image components
0 1 2 3 4 5
equivalence table
Classical connected
components: traverse table
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 0
0 0 0 1 0 3 3 3 2 4
0 1 1 1 0 3 5 5 2 4
image components
0 1 2 3 4 5
equivalence table
Classical connected
components: second pass
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 3 3 3 0 4
0 1 1 1 0 3 0 0 0 4
image components
0 1 2 3 4 5
equivalence table
Another example
from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031320308004573
Function labels = ConnectedComponents(image)
// first pass
for y=0 to height-1,
for x=0 to width-1,
pix = image(x,y)
if pix == image(x-1,y) && pix == image(x,y-1)
labels(x,y) = labels(x,y-1)
SetEquivalence(labels(x-1,y), labels(x,y-1))
else if pix == image(x-1,y)
labels(x,y) = labels(x-1,y)
else if pix == image(x,y-1)
labels(x,y) = labels(x,y-1)
else
labels(x,y) = next_label++
// second pass
for x=0 to width-1,
labels(x,y) = GetEquivalentLabel( labels(x,y) )
Function SetEquivalence(a, b)
aa = GetEquivalentLabel(a)
bb = GetEquivalentLabel(b)
if aa > bb
equiv[aa] = bb
else if aa < bb
equiv[bb] = aa
Function b = GetEquivalentLabel(a)
if a == equiv[a] return a
else
equiv[a] = GetEquivalentLabel(equiv[a])
return equiv[a]

quantized image components

Outline
(thresholding, …)



Perimeter
• Perimeter of binary region:
– Dilate, then subtract
– Erode, then subtract
– (Which is better?)
• This only gives the pixels as binary
image
• To get ordered list of contiguous
pixels, use Wall Follow algorithm

Wall following
Algorithm:
1. Start at ON pixel
2. Move in any direction until end of
region reached
3. Turn right
4. Repeat:
1. If pixel to the left is ON,
Turn left and move forward
2. Else if pixel in front is OFF,
Turn right
3. Else
move forward
- This traverses clockwise, using 4-connectedness
(other versions are possible)
- Can be used to compute perimeter
Distance functions
• D is a distance function (metric) if
• Common distance functions:
shape of each?
Other distances
• Mahalanobis
(weight differently along each axis)
• Hausdorff
(distance b/w point sets)
A and B are subsets of S

Length along path # of isothetic
# of diagonal
moves
moves
Freeman formula Pythagorean theorem Kimura’s method

c=0 c=1 c=½
(overestimates) (underestimates) (good compromise)
L  2 Nd  No L  [ N d2  ( N d  N o ) 2 ]1/ 2 L  [ N d2  ( N d  N o / 2) 2 ]1/ 2  N o / 2
3 methods compared: Freeman:

L = 16.5
Example:
No=8 Pythagorean:
L = 15.2
Kimura:
L = 15.7
Nd=6
circle with radius = 10 True arc length:
* isothetic (blue) L = 10*p/2 = 15.7
Nd=6
* diagonal (orange) S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847
Chamfering
• How to approximate “correct” distance
(Euclidean)?
• Along a path,
– Let m be number of isothetic moves (horizontal or vertical)
– Let n be number of diagonal moves
• Define chamfer distance between p and q as
dab = min {am+bn} over all possible paths
• Chamfer distance is metric if a, b > 0
• If b > 2a, then diagonal moves are ignored
• Special cases:
– a=1, b=infinity (Manhattan)
– a=1, b=1 (chessboard)
– a=1, b=sqrt(2) (another reasonable choice)
– a=1, b=1.351 (best approximation to Euclidean)
– a=3, b=4 (best integer approximation, scaled by factor of 3)
[G. Borgefors, Distance transformations in digital images, CVGIP, 1986]
Chamfering (cont.)
• Chamfering is process of computing distance to
each foreground pixel
• Two-pass algorithm
– Traverse top-to-bottom, left-to-right
– Traverse bottom-to-top, right-to-left
In each case, compute minimum distance foreground pixels
L: R: L: R:
4-connectivity 8-connectivity
Chamfering (cont.)
• Algorithm (for D4 using Manhattan distance):
Function labels = Chamfer(image)
// first pass
for x=0 to width-1,
d(x,y) = image(x,y) ? 0
: min(infinity, 1+d(x-1,y), 1+d(x,y-1))
// second pass
for y=height-1 to 0 step -1,
for x=width-1 to 0 step -1,
d(x,y) = image(x,y) ? 0
: min(d(x,y), 1+d(x+1,y), 1+d(x,y+1))
Note:
“? :” means “if-else”
(C conditional
expression operator)

Uses of chamfering
• Find center of biggest
centroid
part of shape (need to
largest chamfer
compute signed distance) value
• Shape matching
http://www.gavrila.net/Research/Chamfer_System/chamfer_system.html
• Useful for watershed thresholding

(we will see this later)
Outline
(thresholding, …)



Descriptors
• Region
}
– Euler number
– convex hull
– skeleton We will focus
– moments
– compactness
on regions
– eccentricity (elongatedness)
• Boundary
– chain code
– signature
– r-q plot
– s-y plot
– boundary segments
– shape number
– Fourier descriptors

Euler number
E = C- H
components holes
1-1=0 1-2=-1 1-0=1 2-0=2

Measure of topology
Euler number
• Euler number computed as (N1-N2-2N3)4,

where
– N1 is the number of 2x2 patterns with 1 in
either corner, 0 elsewhere (4 possible patterns)
– N2 is the number of 2x2 patterns with 0 in
either corner , 0 elsewhere (4 possible
patterns)
– N3 is the number of 2x2 checkerboard patterns
(2 possible patterns)
Explained in W.K. Pratt, Digital Image
Processing, 1991

Convex hull
• Convex – any line connecting two points
in R is also in R
convex not convex
• Convex hull – the minimal convex set

containing R

Skeletons
• Point on skeleton is should skeleton
touch boundary?
equidistant to >= 2
boundary points
(without crossing)
• Or, equivalently,
– where wavefronts (grassfires) meet (shock graph)
– centers of maximal balls
– Blum’s Medial Axis Transform (MAT)

• Skeleton is highly sensitive to noise

Skeleton examples

Skeletonization by thinning
• First compute MAT

• Then delete points such that
– do not remove endpoints
– do not break connectivity
– do not excessively erode region

Moments in 1D
• The pth moment of a function f:
• The pth central moment:
centroid
• What are ?
(area, 0, variance, skew, kurtosis)
m2 is also moment of inertia about axis passing through centroid

Moments in 2D
• The pqth moment of a 2D region:
can be
• grayscale or
• binary (more typical)
• The pqth central moment:
(area)
(variance in x)
(variance in y)

Moments in 2D (cont.)
• The pqth normalized central moment:
• Hu moments (derived from these) are invariant to

– translation
– rotation
– scaling
– skew (at least one of them is)

Moments example
• Simple 5x5 binary image:
m00 = 12.0 m00 = 12.0

m10 = 23.0 m10 = 0.0
m01 = 21.0 m01 = 0.0
m11 = 37.0 m11 = -3.3
m20 = 65.0 m20 = 20.9
m02 = 63.0 m02 = 26.3
Computing moments
One pass through image

to compute
regular moments
Central moments
(and normalized / Hu)
are computed without
touching the pixels again!
(Typically, f is a binarized image containing a single non-zero region)

Projections
• Project image onto x, y, or diagonal

• Projection offers compact
representation of image
• First-order moments of image are
equal to first-order moments of
projection
• Second-order moments require
diagonal projection

Compactness
Related to eccentricity (elongatedness)
• Define compactness as (area = # of pixels,
perimeter = length along
boundary)
compactness = 1 compactness < 1
(Note: discretization effects of computing perimeter are severe)
Alternative: Use
Eccentricity
• Approximate region with ellipse
• eccentricity = a / a =
• Formula given by PCA

Principal components
analysis (PCA)
Given n points in d dimensional space
Goals:
1. fit ellipsoid to data
2. reduce dimensionality
Ellipsoid specified by
• center
(given by mean of data)
• orientation of axes
(given by eigenvectors of covariance matrix of
data)
• length of axes
(given by square root of eigenvalues of covariance
matrix of data)
PCA (cont.)
• n points in d dimensional • eigenvalues and
space eigenvectors
• matrix form
• mean
• covariance • factorize covariance

matrix

PCA (cont.)
• linear transformation • reconstruct x
• but elements of y are

• data uncorrelated! decreasingly important
• vectors ei form an • project to k-dimensional

orthonormal basis for space
space

PCA (cont.)

PCA example
• Simple 5x5 binary image:
m = (2.0, 2.0)
C = (1/9) * [ 12 -10]
[-10 12]
e1 e2 l1
C = PLPT = [-0.7 0.7] [2.4 0 ] [-0.7 0.7]
[ 0.7 0.7] [ 0 0.2] [ 0.7 0.7]
l2
major axis = e1√l1 = [1.1 -1.1]T
minor axis = e2 √l 2 = [-0.3 -0.3] T

Best fitting ellipse
The elliptical binary region in image
bounded by the ellipse
has the following second-order moments
To be an ellipse, (which is always

  true for a
covariance matrix)
Note:
Eccentricity and Direction
• Covariance matrix
of region
• Eigenvalues
solve det(C-lI)=0)
• Eccentricity
ranges from
0 (circle) to 1 (line)
Hint: Use atan2(y,x),

• Direction passing numerator
(clockwise angle from and denominator
positive x-axis) as separate arguments
• Eigenvectors
Eigenfaces
mean face
eigenvectors
N x N image is a point in an N2 dimensional space
N2 x N2 Covariance matrix captures relationships
between face images in ensemble
Turk and Pentland, 1991
Fruit classification
(high threshold) original image (low threshold)

Note: double threshold
and connected components
can be computed simultaneously:
• scan high threshold image
• if pixel is 1, then floodfill
using low threshold image
(connected components) (double threshold)
mij mij
(moments)
(classification) (banana stem)

Sample results
fruit1.pgm fruit2.pgm

Pixel-Based Processing: ECE 847: Digital Image Processing Stan Birchfield Clemson University

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pixel-Based Processing: ECE 847: Digital Image Processing Stan Birchfield Clemson University

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pixel-Based Processing

ECE 847: Stan Birchfield

original image detect objects, classify fruit,

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

• Removing noise from binary image

• Computing distance in an image

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

• Removing noise from binary image

• Computing distance in an image

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

identity inverse contrast threshold

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

Throws away all spatial information!

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

Step 2: Compute running sum

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

new gray level

running sum old gray level

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

a a’ a’+d new gray level k’

old gray level k

where p is the PDF and q is the CDF

a b L-1 a’ a’+d L-1

a1 b1 a2 b2 L-1 a1’ a1’+d a2’ a2’+d L-1

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

How to find it?

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

Repeat until convergence:

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

• Threshold t splits image into two groups

percentage of pixels variance of pixels

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

• Compute co-occurrence matrix

• Uses spatial information

image histogram Otsu LET

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

background image histogram

from Gonzalez and Woods, p. 597

threshold too low:

1. Use high threshold

image low threshold retains some background

We will explain Floodfill later

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

• Removing noise from binary image

• Computing distance in an image

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

Add each element of B

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

(“center-out” is more intuitive)

(“center-out” is more intuitive)

• morphology – study of form or shape

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

S. Birchfield, Clemson Univ., ECE 847, http://www.ces.clemson.edu/~stb/ece847

Let B be 3x3 with all 1s. B