Module – 3

Dynamics of fluid flow

Eldho Mathew /Ajith M S

Assistant professor
Mechanical department
ASIET
 Dynamics of fluid flow
• Study of fluid motion with the forces causing
flow.
• The dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is
analysed by the Newton’s second law of motion,
which relates the acceleration with the forces.
• The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and
non-viscous.
 Equations of motion
• In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:
(i) Fg, gravity force
(ii) Fp, the pressure force
(iii)Fv, force due to viscosity
(iv) Ft, force due to turbulance
(v) Fc, force due to compressibility.
Newtons law yields
m( dv/dt) = (Fg)+ (Fp)+ (Fv)+ (Ft)+ (Fc)
(i) If Fc is negligible, the resulting net force
m( dv/dt) = (Fg)+ (Fp)+ (Fv)+ (Ft) and
equation of motions are called Reynold’s
equations of motion
(ii) If Ft is negligible, the resulting equations of
motion are known as Navier-Stokes
equation
m( dv/dt) = (Fg)+ (Fp)+ (Fv)
(iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous
force (Fv) is zero and equations of motions
are known as Euler’s equation of motion.
m( dv/dt) = (Fg)+ (Fp)
 Euler’s equation of motion
Consider a stream line in which flow is
taking place in s direction.
The forces acting on the cylindrical
element of cross section dA and length
ds are
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of
flow.
2. Pressure force [p +(∂p/∂s)ds] dA
opposite to the direction of flow.
3. Weight of element ρgdAds
θ is the angle between the direction of flow
and the line of action of the weight of
element
Resultant force, Fs = mass of element x as
So pdA - [p +(∂p/∂s)ds] dA – ρgdAdscosθ =
ρdAdsas eq.1
where as is the acceleration in the direction of s.
Now as = dv/dt, where v is a function of s and t
= (∂v/∂s x ds/dt) +∂v/∂t (since ds/dt =v)
If the flow is steady, ∂v/∂t = 0
So, as = v∂v/∂s
Substituting the value of as in eq. no. 1and simplifying
the equation, we get
-(∂p/∂s)dsdA – ρgdAdscosθ = ρdAds x v∂v/∂s
Dividing by ρdAds, we get, -∂p/ρ∂s –gcosθ = v∂v/∂s
∂p/ρ∂s + gcosθ + v∂v/∂s = 0
But from fig, we have cosθ = dz/ds
So (1/ρ) dp/ds + g dz/ds + v dv/ds = 0
Or dp/ρ +gdz +vdv = 0 eq. 2
Eq. 2 is known as Euler’s equation of motion.
 Bernoulli’s equation of motion
Assumptions
• The fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero
• The flow is steady
• The flow is incompressible
• The flow is irrotational
 Bernoulli’s equation of motion
Bernoulli’s theorem
“ It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible
fluid, the total energy at any point of the fluid is constant.
The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy
and potential energy.”
Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s
equation of motion as
ʃdp/ρ + ʃgdz + ʃvdv = constant
If flow is incompressible, ρ is constant and
p/ρ + gz + v2/2 = constant
Or p/ρg + v2/2g + z = constant
p/ ρg = pressure head
v2/2g = kinetic head
z = potential head
 Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid
• All the real fluid are viscous and hence offer
resistance to flow.
• Thus there are always some losses in fluid flows
and hence in the application of Bernoulli’s
equation.
• Thus the Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids
between points 1 and 2 is given as
p1/ρg + v12/2g + z1 = p2/ρg + v22/2g + z2 + hL
Where hL is loss of energy between points 1 and 2.
 Bernoulli’s equation: applications
The following devices are examples for the practical
applications of Bernoulli’s equation.
(1) Venturi meter
(2) Orifice meter
(3) Flow nozzle
(4) Pitot tube
Bernoulli’s equation is also applied for measurements
of flow through pipes and open channels
 Venturimeter
• Used to measure the discharge of
fluid flowing through a pipe
• The cross-sectional area of the
passage is reduced to create a
pressure difference.
• By measuring the pressure difference,
we can find the discharge through the
pipe.
Venturimeter consists of three parts
(1) A short converging part
(2) Throat
(3) A long diverging part
• The U tube manometer is fitted on
limb at the inlet pipe and other limb
at the throat.
• The included angle of convergent
part is 150 to 200 while that of
divergent part is 50 to 70.
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between section (1) and
(2) i.e between inlet and throat, we get
P1/ρg +V12/2g +Z1 = P2/ρg +V22/2g +Z2 eq.1
When a pipe is horizontal, Z1 = Z2
Then (P1 – P2)/ρg = (V22 – V12)/2g eq.2
Here (P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads
at section 1 and 2 and it is equal to h. So the
equation becomes
h = (V22 – V12)/2g eq.3
V22 – V12 = 2gh eq.4
Applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2
A1V1 = A2V2 or V1 = (A2V2)/A1
Substituting V1 = (A2V2)/A1 in eq.4, we get
V22 – (A2V2/A1)2 = 2gh
V22 – (A22V22/A12) = 2gh
V22 [1- (A22/A12)] = 2gh
V22 [(A12 - A22)/A12] = 2gh
V22 = 2gh [A12/(A12 - A22)]
V2 =

=
Theoretical discharge (Qth) = A2V2
=

The above discharge is theoretical one. The

actual discharge will be less than the
theoretical one.
So Qact = Cd (Qth) = Cd

Where Cd = coefficient of venturimeter and it is

less than one always.
• If the manometer contains liquid heavier than
flowing liquid, then
h= x [(Sh/Sf) -1]

• If the manometer contains liquid lighter than

the flowing liquid, then
h = x [1- (SL/Sf)]
 Orificemeter
• It is a simple device used for
measuring discharge of fluid
through a pipe.
• It works on basis of Bernoulli’s
equation like venturimeter.
• It consists of a flat circular plate
having sharp edged hole concentric
with a pipe.
• The diameter of the orifice varies
from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe
diameter.
• Orifice meter is fitted on the pipe
line to measure discharge of fluid. A
differential manometer is connected
so that one limb connects at section
1 and the other at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
P1/ρg +V12/2g +Z1 = P2/ρg +V22/2g +Z2 eq.1
[P1/ρg + Z1] – [P2/ρg + Z2] = (V22/2g) – (V12/2g)
[P1/ρg + Z1] – [P2/ρg + Z2] = h = differential
manometer head.
So h = (V22 - V12)/2g
V22 - V12 = 2gh eq.2
The section 2 is at the venacontracta and A2 is
the area of the venacontracta.
• The ratio of the area of vena contracta to the area of
the orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.
Cc = Area of jet at vena contracta/area of orifice
= A2/A0
According to continuity equation,
A1V 1 = A2V2
So V1 = (A2V2)/A1 = (CcA0V2)/A1
Substitute V1 value in equation 2, we get
V22 – [(Cc2A02V22)/A12] = 2gh
V2 = eq.3
• Theoretical Discharge Q= V2A2
= V2 x A0Cc
= x A0Cc
eq.4

The above expression is simplified by using

Cd = or Cc =
Substituting the value of Cc in equation (4) we

get Q = x A0 x

Q =

=
 Pitot tube
• Used for measuring the
velocity of flow at any point
in a pipe or a channel.
• It is based on the principle
that if the velocity of flow at
a point becomes zero, the
pressure is increased due to
the conversion of the kinetic
energy into pressure energy.
• Consider two points (1) and
(2) at same level in such a
way that point (2) is just at
the inlet of pitot tube and
point (1) is far away from
the tube.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and
(2), we get
P1/ρg +V12/2g +Z1 = P2/ρg +V22/2g +Z2 eq.1
But Z1 = Z2 as points (1) and (2) are on same
line. Also V2 = 0
Pressure head at (1) = P1/ρg = H
Pressure head at (2) = P2/ρg = (h + H)
H + V12/2g = h + H
h = V12/2g, V1 =
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is
given by (V1)act = Cv
Where Cv = Coefficient of pitot tube.
The various arrangement of pitot tube
adopted are
(i) Pitot-tube along with a vertical
piezometer
(ii) Pitot tube connected with
piezometer
(iii) Pitot-tube and vertical
piezometer tube with differential
U-tube manometer
(iv) Pitot - static tube, which consists
of two circular concentric tubes
one inside the other. The outlet is
connected to the differential
manometer where the difference
of pressure head ‘h’ is measured
by knowing the difference of the
level of manometer liquid
say’x’.
Now h = x [(Sh/Sf) -1]
 Notches
Notch
and weirs
• Opening in the side of a tank or
reservoir which extends above the
surface of the liquid.
• It is a device, generally made of
metal, for measuring discharge of
a liquid.
• Notches can be classified
according to the shape of the
opening as rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal and stepped notches
Weir
• Concrete or masonary structure placed in
an open channel over which the flow of
liquid occurs.
• A weir is a notch on a larger scale which is
sharp crested but also may have substantial
width in the direction of flow. It is used
both as a flow measuring device and a
device to raise water levels.
• According to the shape weirs can be
classified as rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir.
• Nappe or vein :- The
sheet of liquid flowing
through a notch or weir
is called nappe or vein.

• Sill or crest :- The

bottom edge of a notch
or the top of a weir over
which the liquid flows
is called as the sill or
crest.