Materials

Over 70,000 different kinds and grades of engineering materials

This number grows daily
1,000 different materials make up an
automobile
Metal and Non-metal Use in Automobiles

Figure I.1 Some of the metallic and nonmetallic materials used in a typical automobile

MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
 Automotive Applications of
SMC
Sheet Molding
Plastics and Composites
Compound: n Composite Intensive Vehicles
Polyester Resin and
chopped glass Polyester resin and Glass Mat Preform
With RTM Resin Transfer Molding

8-25 -98 M41_au 25 5

 Automotive Plastics and Composites Use
Plastic Fender

SMC
Sheet Molding
Compound

SMC
Sheet Molding
Compound
Classification of Engineering Materials
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 Materials

Ferrous metals: carbon-, alloy-, stainless-, tool-and-die steels

Non-ferrous metals: aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium,
superalloys, refractory metals, beryllium, zirconium, low-melting alloys,
gold, silver, platinum, …

Plastics: thermoplastics (acrylic, nylon, polyethylene, ABS,…)

thermosets (epoxies, Polymides, Phenolics, …)
elastomers (rubbers, silicones, polyurethanes, …)

Ceramics, Glasses, Graphite, Diamond, Cubic Boron Nitride

Composites: reinforced plastics, metal-, ceramic matrix composites

Nanomaterials, shape-memory alloys, superconductors, …

Materials Definition
Class
Metals Metals are combinations of one or
more "metallic elements," such as
iron, gold, or lead. Alloys are metals
like steel or bronze that combine
more than one element, and may
include non-metallic elements e.g.
carbon.
Ceramics Ceramic materials are inorganic
materials with non-metallic
properties usually processed at
high temperature at some time
during their manufacture
Polymers A polymer contains many
chemically bonded parts or units
that are bonded together to form a
solid.
Composites Composites are two or more
distinct substances that are
combined to produce a new
material with properties not present
in either individual material.
Examples Properties Applications
Steel, aluminium, Strong, dense, ductile, electrical Electrical wiring, structures
titanium iron, gold, lead, and heat conductors, opaque (buildings, bridges),
copper, platinum, brass, automobiles (body, springs),
bronze, pewter, solder airplanes, trains (rails,
engine components, body,
wheels), shape memory
materials, magnets
Structural ceramics, Lower density than metals, Dinnerware, figurines,
refractories, porcelain, strong, low ductility (brittle), low vases, art, bathtubs, sinks,
glass thermal conductivity, corrosion electrical and thermal
resistant insulation, sewage pipes,
floor and wall tile, dental
fillings, abrasives, glass
windows
Plastics (synthetic, Low density, poor conductors of Fabrics, car parts, packaging
nylon, liquid crystals, electricity and heat, different materials, bags, packing
adhesives, elastomers optical properties materials (Styrofoam*),
(rubber) fasteners (Velcro*), glue,
containers, telephone
headsets, rubber bands
Fibreglass (glass and a Properties depend on amount Golf clubs, tennis rackets,
polymer), plywood and distribution of each type of bicycle frames, tires, cars,
(layers of wood and material. Collective set of aerospace materials, paint
glue), concrete (cement properties are more desirable
and pebbles) and possible than with any
individual material.
 Classification of Materials
Metals Ceramics & Glasses Polymers
• good conductors of • thermally and • very large molecules
electricity and heat electrically insulating • low density, low weight
• lustrous appearance • resistant to high • maybe extremely
• susceptible to temperatures and flexible
corrosion harsh environments
• strong, but • hard, but brittle
deformable
 Classification of Materials: A Few Additional Catagories

Biomaterials Semiconductors Composites

• implanted in human • electrical properties • consist of more than
body between conductors one material type
• compatible with and insulators • designed to display
body tissues • electrical properties a combination of
can be precisely properties of each
controlled component

Intel Pentium 4 fiberglass surfboards

hip replacement
Why study materials?
applied scientists or engineers must make material choices
materials selection
◦ in-service performance
◦ deterioration
◦ economics
BUT…really, everyone makes material choices!

aluminum glass plastic

Classification of Common Ferrous Metals and Alloys
Types of Iron
Wrought Iron
◦ Very little carbon (<0.2%) & 99% Fe
◦ Refined by melting pig iron in Cupola furnace
◦ Soft, tough, ductile malleable, easily wrought
Steel
◦ Medium carbon (0.2-2.3%)
◦ Produced by Bessemer, Open hearth, Electric arc & LD processes
Cast Iron
◦ High Carbon (2.3-4.3%)
◦ Forms lots of carbide phase
◦ Make the material very brittle

Properties depend on how fast you cool

14
 Types of Cast Iron:
Gray Cast Iron (obtained by slow cooling)
3.25-3.75% C and 1.5-2.5% Si
Gray appearance
graphite flakes
weak & brittle in tension
stronger in compression
excellent vibration dampening
wear resistant
Machine beds, flywheels, engine blocks and brake drums
White Cast iron(by rapid cooling)
0.8-1.2% Si
White appearance
Hard and brittle
pearlite + cementite
Rail road brake shoes, roll milling rods and crushers

15
 Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Ductile iron
graphite as nodules not flakes
matrix often pearlite – stronger but less ductile
Crankshafts, heavy duty gears
Malleable iron
heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
graphite in rosettes
reasonably strong and ductile
Compacted graphite iron
relatively high thermal conductivity
good resistance to thermal shock
lower oxidation at elevated temperatures

16
 Types of Steels

Low Alloy High Alloy

low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
17
 Metals

Ferrous Metals Non-ferrous metals

◦ Cast irons ◦ Aluminum and its alloys
◦ Steels ◦ Copper and its alloys
Super alloys ◦ Magnesium and its alloys
◦ Iron-based ◦ Nickel and its alloys
◦ Nickel-based ◦ Titanium and its alloys
◦ Cobalt-based ◦ Zinc and its alloys
◦ Lead & Tin
◦ Refractory metals
◦ Precious metals
General Properties and Applications of Ferrous Alloys

 Ferrous alloys are useful metals in terms of

mechanical, physical and chemical properties.
 Alloys contain iron as their base metal.
 Carbon steels are least expensive of all metals while
stainless steels is costly.
 Carbon and alloy steels
Carbon steels
• Classified as low, medium and high:
1. Low-carbon steel or mild steel, < 0.3%C, bolts,
nuts and sheet plates.
2. Medium-carbon steel, 0.3% ~ 0.6%C, machinery,
automotive and agricultural equipment.
3. High-carbon steel, > 0.60% C, springs, cutlery,
cable.
 Alloy Steels
Steels containing alloys in specifiable amounts
◦ 1.65% or more manganese
◦ 0.60% silicon
◦ 0.60% copper
Most common alloying elements are chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium,
tungsten, cobalt, boron and copper
Low alloy steels contain less than 8% alloy additions
High alloy steels contain more than 8% alloy additions
Alloying Elements and effects in Steel:
Chromium: improves toughness, hardenability, wear and corrosion resistance, and high-temperature strength;
it increases the depth of the hardness penetration resulting from heat treatment by promoting carburization.
Cobalt: improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
Manganese: improves hardenability, strength, abrasion resistance, and machinability; it deoxidizes the molten
steel, reduce shot shortness, and decreases weldability.
Molybdenum: improves hardenability, wear resistance, toughness, elevated-temperature strength, creep
resistance, and hardness; it minimizes temper embrittlement.
Nickel: improves strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance; it improves hardenability.
Niobium (columbium): imparts fineness of grain size and improves strength and impact toughness; it lowers
transition temperature and may decrease hardenability.

Titanium: improves hardenability; it deoxidizes steels.

Tungsten: It improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. It does not get softened by tempering.
It also causes grain refinement.

Vanadium: improves strength, toughness, abrasion resistance, and hardness at elevated temperatures; it
inhibits grain growth during heat treatment.
Effects of Alloying Elements
 Stainless steels:
• Five types of stainless steels:
1. Austenitic steels
2. Ferritic steels
3. Martensitic steels
4. Precipitation-hardening (PH) steels
5. Duplex-structure steels
Common Nonferrous Metals and Alloys:

Figure: Some common nonferrous metals and alloys, classified by attractive engineering property.
Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) • Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
• Refractory metals
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant

26
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
• Characteristics:
1. High strength to weight ratio
2. Resistance to corrosion
3. High thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Ease of machinability & Non-magnetic
• CP Al: 99%Al, used in cooking utensils, wires, rivets
• Duralumin contains 3.5 -4.5% Cu . Maximum strength at Age-
hardenable condition, Used in automobile aircraft wings, sheets
and rivets
• Y-alloy: is an alloy of copper , nickel and magnesium. Fair High
temperature strength, used in automobile pistons and aircraft
parts

27
 Magnesium and magnesium alloys

• Magnesium (Mg) is the lightest metal.

• Alloys are used in structural and non-structural
applications.
• Typical uses of magnesium alloys are aircraft and missile
components.
• Also has good vibration-damping characteristics.
 Copper and copper alloys
 Copper alloys have electrical and mechanical properties,
corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity and wear
resistance.
 Applications are electronic components, springs and
heat exchangers.
 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
 Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
 Nickel and nickel alloys
• Nickel (Ni) has strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance to metals.
• Used in stainless steels and nickel-base alloys. Monel metal is an alloy of
Nickel and Copper. Inconel contains Ni, Cr and Fe
• Alloys are used for high temperature applications, such as turbine blades, heat
exchangers, jet-engine components and rockets.

30
 Titanium and titanium alloys
• Titanium (Ti) is expensive, has high strength-to-weight ratio and
corrosion resistance.
• Used as components for aircrafts, jet-engines, racing-cars and
marine crafts.

31
 Superalloys
• Superalloys are high-temperature alloys use in jet
engines, gas turbines and reciprocating engines.
 Special metals and alloys

1. Shape-memory alloys (i.e. eyeglass frame, helical spring)

2. Amorphous alloys (Metallic Glass)
3. Nanomaterials
4. Metal foams
 Other nonferrous metals
1. Beryllium
2. Zirconium
3. Low-melting-point metals:
- Lead alloys used for solders, bearings
- Zinc
- Tin used for fusible alloys & contact bearings.
4. Precious metals:
- Gold
- Silver
- Platinum
 Refractory metals
• Refractory metals have a high melting point and
retain their strength at elevated temperatures.
• Applications are electronics, nuclear power and
chemical industries.
• Molybdenum, columbium, tungsten, and tantalum
are referred to as refractory metal.
 Metallic Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Pure metal elements
(Not commonly found or used)

Metal element compounds (alloy)

(Commonly used due to the engineered
properties of the compound)

Thermal and electrical conductors

Mechanical properties include

strength and plasticity
37
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
The wide range of materials that falls within this classification
includes ceramics that are composed of clay minerals, cement, and
glass. These materials are typically insulated to the passage of
electricity and heat, and are more resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to
mechanical behavior, ceramics are hard but very brittle.

38
Alumina (AI2O3, emery, sapphire)

Magnesia (MgO)

Silica (SO2) glasses and silicates

Silicon carbide (SiC)

Silicon nitride (Si3N4)

Cement and concrete

39
 Ceramic Materials(Applications)
Clay – Shaped, dried, and fired inorganic
material
Examples: Brick, tile, sewer pipe, chimney
flue, china, porcelain, etc.

Refractory – Designed to provide

acceptable mechanical or chemical
properties while at high temperatures
Example: Space shuttle all-silica
insulating tiles

40
Polyethylene (PE)
Polymethylmethacrylate \
(Acrylic and PMMA)
Nylon, alias Polyamide (PA)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane (PU)
Polyvinylchloride (WC)
Polyethylene tetraphthalate (PET)
Polyethylether Ketone (PEEK)
Epoxies (EP)
Elastomers, such as natural rubber (NR)

42
 Polymeric Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Compounds consist of mostly organic
elements
Low density

Mechanical properties include

flexibility and elasticity
Polymeric Subgroups
Plastics
Elastomers
43
 Polymeric Materials
Elastomers
 Natural or synthetic material
 Can be stretched 200 percent of their
length at room temperature and can
return quickly to original length after
force is released

Vulcanization
 Chemical process used to form strong
bonds between adjacent polymers to
produce a tough, strong, hard rubber
(automobile tires)
44
45
Fibreglass (GFRP)

Carbon-fibre reinforced polymers

(CFRP)

Filled polymers

Cermets

46
Composite Materials

1D fibre Woven fabric

Random fibre

47
 Composite Materials
Non-uniform solid consisting of two or more different materials
◦ Mechanically or metallurgically bonded
◦ Each of the constituent materials maintains its identity
Properties depend on:
◦ Properties of individual components
◦ Relative amounts
◦ Size, shape, and distribution
◦ Orientation
◦ Degree of bonding
 Composite Materials
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC):
Mixture of ceramics and metals reinforced by strong, high-stiffness fibers

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC):

Ceramics such as aluminum oxide and silicon carbide embedded with
fibers for improved properties, especially high temperature applications.

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC):

Thermosets or thermoplastics mixed with fiber reinforcement or powder.

49
 Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Discontinuous thin fibers of one material are embedded in a matrix
◦ Wood and bamboo are naturally occurring fiber composites
◦ Bricks of straw and mud
◦ Automobile tires
◦ Fibers of nylon, rayon, Kevlar, or steel to reinforce the rubber
◦ Glass fibers
◦ Graphite
◦ Ceramic fibers, metal wires, whiskers
Common objective is high strength and lightweight
◦ Orientation of the fibers is important
 Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Table 8-7 and Table 8-8 list properties of common fiber-reinforced materials
Advanced fiber-reinforced composites
◦ Organic or resin matrix composites
◦ Sports equipment, light-weight armor, low-temperature aerospace applications

◦ Metal-matrix composites
◦ Nonflammable, do not absorb water or gases, corrosion resistance

◦ Carbon-carbon composites
◦ High temperature applications

◦ Ceramic-matrix composites
◦ High temperature strength, stiffness, and environmental stability
 Particular Composites
1. Consist of discrete particles of one material in a matrix of another material
 Concrete

2. Dispersion strengthened materials have a small amount of hard, brittle

particles in a soft, metal matrix
3. True particulate composites have large amount of coarse particles
4. Metal-matrix composites
 Boeing 757-200

Figure : Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial

aircraft. Source: Courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.

MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
 Methods of Reinforcing Plastics

Figure :Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with

(a) particles, (b) short or long fibers or flakes, and (c) continuous fibers. The
laminate structures shown in (d) can be produced from layers of continuous fibers or
sandwich structures using a foam or honeycomb core (see also Fig. 16.50).

MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
 Table : Representative examples, applications,
and properties for each category of materials

Example of Applications Properties

Metals and Alloys

Gray cast iron Automobile engine blocks Castable, machinable,
vibration damping
Ceramics and
Glasses
SiO2-Na2O-CaO Window glass Optically transparent,
thermally insulating
Polymers
Polyethylene Food packaging Easily formed into thin,
flexible, airtight film

56
 Table : Continued

Example of Applications Properties

Semiconductors
Silicon Transistors and integrated Unique electrical
circuits behavior

Composites Carbide cutting tools for High hardness, yet

Tungsten carbide machining good shock resistance
-cobalt (WC-Co)

57
Properties of Materials

58
Properties Comparison

59
 Chemical Properties
A. Composition :
Composition of a material can be determined by analytical
chemistry. In metals and alloys the percentage of various
elements which make up metals and alloys the decide the
composition.
B. Structure :
This refers to the microstructure of a material.
C. Corrosion Resistance :
It is the deterioration of a material by chemical reaction with its
environment. Corrosion affects both metallic as well as
nonmetallic materials like brick, concrete, etc
Response and impact of environment on material structures
 Why mechanical properties are important?
The behavior of material is mainly determined by various mechanical properties of the material
when subjected to different loading conditions. Such properties mainly include Young’s modulus,
various types of strength of the material, hardness, ductility etc. and are found to be very important
both for design & manufacturing viewpoint.

Response of a material to mechanical forces are termed as

mechanical properties
61
 Selecting Materials
Why do we study materials?

Many engineers, whether mechanical, civil, chemical,

electrical or mechatronics will be exposed to design
problem, and the reason for this design problem is selecting
the material.
Ex: transmission gear, the superstructure for building or an
integrated circuit board.
Always the problem is not selecting the right material for the
right application.

62
© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure: Functional classification of

materials. Notice that metals,
plastics, and ceramics occur in
different categories. A limited
number of examples in each
category is provided

63
 A Common Perspective
 Let us consider the common types of Engineering Materials.
 These are Metals, Ceramics, Polymers and various types of composites of these.
 A composite is a combination of two or more materials which gives a certain benefit to at least one property
→ A comprehensive classification is given in the next slide. The term Hybrid is a superset of composites.
 The type of atomic entities (ion, molecule etc.) differ from one class to another, which in turn gives each
class a broad ‘flavour’ of properties.
● Like metals are usually ductile and ceramics are usually hard & brittle
● Polymers have a poor tolerance to heat, while ceramics can withstand high temperatures Bonding and structure are
key factors in determining
● Metals are opaque (in bulk), while silicate glasses are transparent/translucent
the properties of materials
● Metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity, while ceramics are poor in this aspect.
● If you heat semi-conductors their electrical conductivity will increase, while for metals it will decrease
● Ceramics are more resistant to harsh environments as compared to Metals
 Biomaterials are a special class of materials which are compatible with the body of an organism
(‘biocompatible’). Certain metals, ceramics, polymers etc. can be used as biomaterials.

Common type of materials Diamond is poor electrical

conductor but a good thermal
conductor!! (phonons are
responsible for this)
Ceramics
Metals Polymers
& Glasses
Hybrids (Composites)
 Materials
Composites: have two (or more)
solid components; usually one is a
Monolithic Hybrids
matrix and other is a reinforcement
Metals (& Alloys) Composite
Sandwich structures: have a
Ceramics & Glasses material on the surface (one
Sandwich or more sides) of a core
material
Polymers (& Elastomers)
Lattice* Structures: typically a
Lattice combination of material and space
(e.g. metallic or ceramic forms,
aerogels etc.).
Segment

Segmented Structures: are Hybrids are

designed to improve
divided in 1D, 2D or 3D
certain properties of
(may consist of one or monolithic materials
more materials).

*Note: this use of the word 'lattice' should not be confused with the use of the word in connection with crystallography.
Common materials: with various ‘viewpoints’

Graphite
Glass: amorphous
Ceramics

Crystal
Metals Polymers
Behavior and Manufacturing Properties

Figure: An outline of the behavior and the manufacturing properties of materials.

MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Tension Test Stress-strain Curve

Figure 2.2 A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features
MANUFACTURING, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION, BY SEROPE KALPAKJIAN AND STEVEN R. SCHMID.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC., UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Strength  Elasticity
Hardness  Plasticity
Toughness  Rigidity
Brittleness  Machinability
Ductility  Resilience
Malleability  Fatigue
 Creep
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The characteristics of material that describe the behavior under the action of
external loads are referred as its mechanical properties. The common mechanical
properties are as follows
STRENGTH :
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist loads without failure.
It is usually expressed or measured in terms of maximum load per unit area (i.e.
maximum stress or ultimate strength) that a material can withstand failure and it
varies according to the type of loading .
Further the strength is divided into three types:
1. Tensile Strength:
The tensile strength or tenacity is defined
as the ability of material to resist a stretching
(tensile) load without fracture.
2. Compressive strength:
The ability of a material to resist squeezing
(compressive) load without fracture is called
compressive strength.

3. Shear strength:
The ability of a material to resist transverse
loads i.e. loads tending to separate (or cut)
the material is called shear strength.

STIFFNESS:
It is the ability of material to resist deformation or deflection
under load. Within the elastic limit, stiffness is measured by
the modulus of elasticity.
 Stiffness
• The ability of a material to resist bending deformation.

 Property of material which enables it to resist elastic deformation or deflection is called

stiffness.
 It is also made use in graduating spring balances and spring controlled measuring devices.
 Property concerned with relative deformability of a material under load is called stiffness.

72
 ELASTICITY
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F

 Elastic means reversible!.

 Elasticity refers to the ability of the material to return to its original
geometry when load is released. Maximum load at which material remains
elastic is known as elastic limit
2
73
ELASTICITY:
The ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original
shape when the load is removed is called elasticity.

DUCTILITY:
 It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture under tensile
load. Due to this property material can drawn out into fine wire without fracture.
 It is a measure of the amount of deformation of a material can withstand before
breaking.
 It is also the ability of a material by which it can be drawn into wires.
 DUCTILITY
• Ability of material to be stretched with out forming neck or voids

Plastic tensile strain at failure (%EL): %EL L f  Lo

 x100
Lo

Ao  A f
%AR  x100
Ao
• Another ductility measure:

• Note:%AR and %EL are often comparable.

--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.

20
 PLASTICITY :
It is the property of a material by virtue of which it undergoes
permanent deformation.
The ability of a material to deform under load and retain its new shape
when the load is removed is called plasticity.
 When a material is subjected to an external load of such magnitude
that deformation continues with no apparent further increase in load, the
material is said to have become plastic. In this region the material
experiences permanent deformation and does not return to its original
shape when the load is removed.
 PLASTICITY
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

linear linear
elastic elastic

Plastic means permanent! plastic
When material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, the deformation is not recovered
After the removal of load. Plasticity refer to the ability of a material to undergoes
plastic deformation process such as forging, extrusion and rolling.
3
77
BRITTLENESS:
It is the property of sudden fracture without any visible permanent
deformation.

TOUGHNESS:
 It describes a material’s resistance to fracture under impact loading. It
is often expressed in terms of the amount of energy a material can
absorb before fracture.
 Toughness is not a single property but rather a combination of
strength and ductility.
 TOUGHNESS
• Work done on material before it breaks. Energy to break a unit
volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

21
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting or scratching the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.

Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)

80
HARDNESS:
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist scratching or indentation by
another hard body. Hardness is directly related to strength.

RESILIENCE:
It is a property of material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within the elastic limit.
MACHINABILITY:
The ease with which a given material may be worked or
shaped with a cutting tool is called machinability.
Machinability depends on chemical composition, structure
and mechanical properties.
WELDABILITY:
It is the ability of material to be joined by welding. Weldability
depends on chemical composition, physical properties and
heat treatment to which they are subjected.
CASTABILITY:
Castability of metal refer to the ease with which it can be cast
into different shapes and is concerned with the behavior of
metal in its molten state.
 MALLEABILITY:
MALLEABILTY:
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture
under compressive load. Due to this property metals are hammered and
rolled into thin sheets.
It is the ability of a material by which it can be rolled into sheets.
Malleability is the ability of a material to exhibit large deformation
subjected to compressive force whereas ductility is the ability of a
material to deform upon the application of tensile force.
Aluminium, Copper and gold have good malleability.
 FATIGUE :
FATIGUE:
Failure of material under repeated or reversal stresses is called
fatigue.
It is the strength of the materials when subjected to cyclic or rapid
fluctuating load conditions.
Owing to fatigue a material fails at a stress level much below that
under static loads.
The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected without
fatigue failure is known as the endurance limit.
 Fatigue
Fatigue – Engineering components or manufacturing equipment are subjected to fluctuating
cyclic (periodic) loads and fails after a certain time or cycles. Materials fails at stress levels below
normal static stress loading.

Cyclic Stress – on gear teeth, aircraft parts, and automobile wheels

Thermal Fatigue Stress -- cool die in repeated contact with hot work pieces

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CREEP:
CREEP:
It is the progressive deformation of a material under a constant static
load maintained for a long period of time. It is a slow, temperature-
aided, time-dependent deformation.
It occurs in three stages known as primary, secondary and tertiary
stage.
 Creep
The slow and continuous deformation of a material under
steady load is known as creep. This property is given due
consideration while designing I.C. engine, boiler and turbine
components which are subjected to raised temperatures for
long periods in their working conditions.

Creep testing: Subjecting a specimen to a constant tensile load (engineering

stress) at a certain temperature, measuring the length changes at various
time increments

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