Bonds and Interaction

Forces

AMINULLAH MSi
Introduction
• Everything is made from atoms. That is the key
hypothesis. The most important hypothesis in all of
biology, for example, is that everything that animals
do, atoms do. In other words, there is nothing that
living things do that cannot be understood from the
point of view that they are made of atoms acting
according to the laws of physics [The Feynman
lectures in physics, Vol. 1, 1963 (pp. 1–8)]
• How the atoms are behaving can explain any behavior of
food
• Kenapa lemak padat, minyak cair pada suhu ruang??
• Kenapa pati dipanaskan menjadi lengket??
• Most of the physical changes in foods involve changes in the
arrangements of molecules → the atomic scale is far less
important to most of our physical problems than the
molecular scale
Everything that food does, molecules do.
• Molecular properties can be related to bulk properties of a
food.
• Macro structure arise from forces acting between atoms and
holding them in a preferred arrangement. Co: diamond vs
arang
Bonds
• A bond is when the orbitals from two atoms combine
to form a molecular orbital with the pair of electrons
distributed between the atoms.
• The properties of the bonding orbitals for simple
molecules can, in principle, be calculated using
quantum mechanics.
• Fixed valency, polarization, fixed geometry
Fixed Valency
• Hydrogen with one electron needs a second to fill its first-level
orbital and achieves this by forming one bond
• Helium has two electrons so its first level orbital is already full
and tends not to form bonds.
• Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell and must form four
bonds to fill it → It is possible to form multiple bonds between
two atoms when more than one pair of electrons is shared
between them.
• Carbon can form one, two, or three bonds with another carbon
atom to form the backbone of ethane, ethene, or ethyne
Polarization
• If the electron pair in the bonding orbital is evenly
distributed between the two atoms, the bond is nonpolar,
but if one atom has a greater affinity for electrons it will tend
to draw them closer, leaving the distribution skewed and the
bond polarized.
• Related to electronegativity on the Pauling scale
• If a bond links two atoms, the electrons will tend to
accumulate on the atom with the higher Pauling value and
gain a partial negative charge.
• If the bond is very highly polarized, the electrons will be
effectively entirely associated with the more electronegative
group which will gain a permanent negative charge (i.e., an
anion) leaving the other group with fewer electrons than
needed to provide charge neutrality (i.e., a cation).
• The degree of ionic character to a bond can be calculated as
half the absolute value of the difference between the
electronegativities of the atoms involved.
• carbon–hydrogen bond is |2.6–2.2|/2 = 20 % ionic
• carbon–oxygen bond is |3.5–2.6|/2 = 45 % ionic
• sodium–chloride bond is |0.9–3.15|/2 = 112.5 % ionic
• values greater than 100 % are taken as completely ionic bonds
Fixed Geometry
• Covalent bonds are short (~ 1–2 Å) and very strong while
multiple bonds tend to be shorter and stronger (150– 900 kJ
mol-1)
• The angles between bonds are fixed and depend on which
orbitals are involved in bonding.
• C–H bond and the C≡C repel one another to give the bond
angle of 180°
Fixed Geometry
• C=C bond and the two carbon–hydrogen single bonds in
ethene also repel one another resulting in a planar molecule
with bond angles of 120°
• four bonds around each carbon in ethane repel one another
to give a tetrahedral shape (bond angle 109.5°)
• Lone pairs of electrons also repel to one another as well as
any bonding electrons so the bond angle in water (104.5°) is
closer to tetrahedral than to linear
• the strength of covalent bonds by comparing the bond
energy to the thermal energy of the system.
• Bond energy means the amount of energy you need
to put in to break the bond
• thermal energy is the kinetic energy of molecules due
to heat.
Contoh
• The energy of a mole of carbon–carbon bonds is 360
kJ → energy of each bond = 360,000/6.02 × 1023 = 6 ×
10−19 J
• thermal energy is given by kT, so at room temperature
it is about
4.1 × 10−21 J (= 1.38 × 10−23 JK−1 × 300 K)
• energy of each bond = 144 x thermal energy →
thermal motion to have little effect
• Boltzmann distribution

• ni/n0 = 1.86 × 10−63 → unless the temperature is enormous,

thermal energy alone will never break covalent bonds.
• Even as we heat a food and the molecular motions become
faster, they are never likely to reach an intensity that the
covalent bonds will spontaneously break
• Kenapa ikatan kovalen harus diputus?? → the rancid aroma
in oxidized fat results from the cleavage of carbon–carbon
double bonds and the formation of carbon– oxygen bonds →
not break down by heat alone—there must be some sort of
chemical mechanism
• covalent
bonds are
permanent,
but not rigid;
they flex
vibrate and
rotate
• cis-(i.e., H on
the same
side) and
trans-isomers
(i.e., H on the
opposite side)
→ different
molecules
with different
properties.
• To turn the liquid oils into solid fats for margarine, hydrogen
is added across the double bonds to turn them into single
bonds (i.e., hydrogenation, adding hydrogen to oleic acid
converts it to stearic acid
• A by-product of this reaction is significant amounts of trans-fats
(e.g., elaidic acid is the trans version of oleic acid)
• oleic and elaidic acids have the same chemical composition, the
cis to trans isomerization raises the melting point from 4 °C to
46.5 °C.
• The bonds between molecules are usually much more
tenuous and to understand them properly, need a
clear picture of how electrostatic forces acting at a
distance give rise to a bond.
• electrostatic force : One of the 4 fundamental forces
• Coulomb Forces. These are also called electrostatic
forces, ion–ion bonds (if attractive), or charge–charge
interactions. They always occur between charged
particles, be they ions, protein molecules, or colloidal
particles, and they are also quite strong.

• two charges z1 and z2, ε is the relative dielectric

constant of the medium, distance between the
centers of the charges (r)
• +z1 and +z2 or -z1 and -z2 → repulsive
• +z1 and -z2 or -z1 and +z2 → attractive
• inversely proportional to the distance
• inversely proportional to the dielectric constant, Co:
For water, the relative dielectric constant ε = 80 at
20oC → the energies involved are smaller by a factor
80 than vacuum (ε = 1).
Ion–Ion Interactions
• “like charges repel one another” is contained within Coulomb’s law: If
the sign of z1 and z2 are similar
• Coulomb’s law helps explain why sodium and chloride ions can sit
alongside one another in a salt crystal but sodium and potassium ions
cannot.
• “salt dissolves in water but not in oil” can be quantitatively
understood in terms of Coulomb’s law as the relative dielectric
permittivity of oil is much less than that of water (approximately 2
and 78, respectively).
• if wanted to dissolve Na
and Cl in a solvent → have
to move the point charges
from this separation out
to an infinite distance.
• If move the ions apart in
water, the energy cost
would be about 15 kT, oil
be about 600 kT.
• U = electrostatic force
 • , γ = activity coeff
• where z is the ion charge I is the ionic
strength.

• where ci and zi are the concentration

and charge on ion i.
• the activity of Na ions as a function of
sodium chloride and sodium sulfate
solutions.
• As concentration increases, more and
more of the ions are bound in pairs
and consequently contribute less to
the effective free ion concentration.
Ion-Dipole Interactions
• Coulumb’s law describes the interactions between ions, but
because of bond polarization, many nonionic food molecules
carry several partial charges distributed about their
structure.
• Co: a water molecule in a fixed distance away from a sodium
ion.
• A dipole is two equal and opposite charges separated by a
distance. It is a vector quantity in that it has a magnitude and
a direction.
• The magnitude of a dipole, the dipole moment, is given by μ
= qR where q is the magnitude of the charges and R their
separation.
• The unit is coulomb-meters (Cm) or Debye (D), where 1 D =
3.335 × 10−30 Cm.
• 1 D, corresponds to a charge of + 1 electron and − 1 electron
separated by a distance of 1 Å.
• the interaction potential between an ion and a dipole is
easily calculated from a variation of Coulomb’s law:

• where θ is the angle of orientation of the dipole to the ion

• the strength of the interaction depends on the angle of
orientation of the dipole.
• A polar molecule will orientate itself to an ion so the unlike
partial charge is closest and the like charge is furthest away.
• If H facing the Na, the net
interaction is repulsive.
• If O is facing the Na, the
net interaction is
attractive.
• If H2O is aligned at 90° to
the Na, the repulsive
interactions cancel one
another out and there is
no interaction.
Dipole–Dipole Interactions
• the magnitude of the
attractive/repulsive force is:

• the range of the interaction is

shorter (~ s−3) → The magnitude of
the force is less than the
corresponding ion–dipole
interaction
• If the molecules were completely free to rotate, the
attractive and repulsive orientations would cancel one
another out and the net dipole–dipole interaction would be
zero.
• polar molecules in solution will tend to line up next to one
another and provide a weak attractive force, the Keesom
force → first contribution to the interaction of van Der Walls
• the net effect of the Keesom forces is always attractive. Polar
molecules will always attract one another, but only over
quite short ranges.
Van der Waals Interactions
• The ion–ion, ion–dipole, and dipole–dipole interactions are
typically weaker than covalent bonds but can provide
structure to assemblies of molecules with charges.
• Electrostatic interactions between nonpolar molecules but
these tend to be weaker still and very short range.
• Intermolecular attractions between nonpolar molecules are
responsible for keeping small lipids, for example, hexane
liquids rather than gases at room temperature.
Van der Waals Interactions
• Nonpolar molecules lack any separation of charge.
• Symmetrical compounds cannot be dipoles
• the electrons of H2 gas are pulled equally in both
directions along the bond and there is no dipole
formed.
• Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) → the pull in one
direction is cancelled out by pulls in the opposite
direction, the net dipole moment is zero.
• if a nonpolar molecule
approaches the negative end of
a permanent dipole, the
electrons will tend to move from
their typical uniform distribution
and accumulate on the atoms
furthest away from the negative
charge leaving the atoms closest
to the charge slightly positive
• The newly induced dipole is
aligned with the permanent
dipole and so attracted to it →
induction forces (s-6) →
second contribution
• based on the average distribution of
electrons.
• the electron distribution on the
bonds of an individual molecule
fluctuate rapidly and at any given
instant → instantaneous or transient
dipole moment
• The instantaneous-induced dipole
interaction results in attractive forces
(London or dispersion forces) → third
contribution
• Van der Waals interactions are the sum of the Keesom
(permanent dipole-permanent dipole), orientation
(permanent dipole-induced dipole), and London (transient
dipole-induced dipole) forces

• where C is a positive constant with contributions from the

dispersion, induction, and orientational components of the
interaction and is related to the properties of the molecules
involved → Van der Waals potential is always negative so the
forces acting are always attractive.
Van der Waals Interactions
• Van der Walls interaction is weak, but it acts between
any pair of molecules
• In highly polar molecules, Van der Walls contribution
is small compared to the electrostatic interactions, but
in nonpolar liquids they are effectively the only
attractive forces acting.
Bonding in Water—Some Special Cases
• Water is a unique material and we owe the existence of life
on earth to its plentiful supply and unusual properties.
• unusual properties of water:
1. A high specific heat ( Cp = 4.18 JK−1 g−1) to buffer cells
against changes in temperature
2. A solid form less dense than the liquid.
3. Water is a good solvent for ions and polar molecules but a
poor solvent for nonpolar materials.
Bonding in Water—Some Special Cases
• unusual properties of water → arise from its highly
hydrogen-bonded structure.
• Each water molecule has two hydrogens and two lone pairs
of electrons on the oxygen: so can form up to four separate
hydrogen bonds with other water molecules.
• Ice → fully hydrogen bonded
• The highly structured nature of water is important because it
has lower entropy than would be expected for a liquid.
Bonding in Water—Some Special Cases
• When a solute dissolves in water, the water molecules must
rearrange their bonding patterns, both with the solute
molecule and with each other, to accommodate the
inclusion.
• When a nonpolar molecule dissolves in water; there are few
significant intermolecular interactions between the solute
and solvent but the water forms a highly ordered clathrate
cage around the solute to accommodate it
RESPONSI
Bonds
• A bond is when the orbitals from two atoms combine
to form a molecular orbital with the pair of electrons
distributed between the atoms.
• The properties of the bonding orbitals for simple
molecules can, in principle, be calculated using
quantum mechanics.
• Fixed valency, polarization, fixed geometry
Soal
• Jelaskan pendekatan dalam menjelaskan the
properties of the bonding orbitals?
• the strength of covalent bonds by comparing the bond
energy to the thermal energy of the system.
• Bond energy means the amount of energy you need
to put in to break the bond
• thermal energy is the kinetic energy of molecules due
to heat.
Contoh
• The energy of a mole of carbon–carbon bonds is 360
kJ → energy of each bond = 360,000/6.02 × 1023 = 6 ×
10−19 J
• thermal energy is given by kT, so at room temperature
it is about
4.1 × 10−21 J (= 1.38 × 10−23 JK−1 × 300 K)
• energy of each bond = 144 x thermal energy →
thermal motion to have little effect
• Boltzmann distribution

• ni/n0 = 1.86 × 10−63 → unless the temperature is enormous,

thermal energy alone will never break covalent bonds.
Soal
• Diketahui suatu atom x – atom y memiliki energi
ikatan 120 kJ. Kemudian atom x – atom y dalam tanur
dengan suhu 600 oC. Apakah treatment tersebut dapat
memutuskan ikatan atom x – atom y?Jelaskan?
Soal
• Jelaskan kenapa garam jauh lebih dapat larut di dalam
air dibandingkan di dalam minyak?
Soal
• Jelaskan ion-dipole interactions?
Soal
• Mengapa ikatan dalam air menjadi unik?