ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION

If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed

plastically) and the stress is then released, the material ends up
with a permanent strain. If the stress is reapplied, the material
again responds elastically at the beginning up to a new yield
point that is higher than the original yield point. The amount of
elastic strain that it will take before reaching the yield point is
called Elastic Strain Recovery.
COMPRESSIVE, SHEAR, AND TORSIONAL DEFORMATION

Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior

to tensile stresses, but in the case of compressive stresses
there is no maximum, since no necking occurs.
HARDNESS

Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to

localized plastic deformation. Early hardness tests were based
on natural minerals with a scale constructed solely on the
ability of one material to scratch another that was softer.
Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over
the years in which a small indenter is forced into the surface of
a material to be tested, under controlled conditions of load and
rate of application.
Hardness test are performed more frequently than any
other mechanical test for several reasons:

1. They are simple and inexpensive.

2. The test is nondestructive.
3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated
from hardness data, such as tensile strength.
HARDNESS-TESTING TECHNIQUES
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTS

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test

material with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The
indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor
load F0 usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an
indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so
responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a
datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an
additional major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration.
When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is
removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of
the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth
of penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting
from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to
calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
 HR = E - e

F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf

F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1
measured in units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond
indenter, 130 units for steel ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball
 Rockwell Hardness Scale

Minor Load Major Load Total Load

Value of
Scale Indenter F0 F1 F
E
kgf kgf kgf
A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100
B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130
C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100
D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100
E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130
F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130
G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130
H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130
K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130
L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130
M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130
P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130
R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130
S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130
V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130
ROCKWELL SUPERFICIAL HARDNESS TESTS

The Rockwell Superficial hardness test method consists of indenting

the test material with a diamond cone (N scale) or hardened steel ball
indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary
minor load F0 usually 3 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an
indicating device that follows the movements of the indenter and so
responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a
datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an
additional major load, is applied with resulting increase in penetration.
When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is
removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the
additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of
penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, e, resulting
from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to
calculate the Rockwell Superficial hardness number.
 Rockwell Superficial Hardness Scales

Minor Load Major Load Total Load

Value of
Scale Indenter Type F0 F1 F
E
kgf kgf kgf
HR 15 N N Diamond cone 3 12 15 100
HR 30 N N Diamond cone 3 27 30 100
HR 45 N N Diamond cone 3 42 45 100
HR 15 T 1/16" steel ball 3 12 15 100
HR 30 T 1/16" steel ball 3 27 30 100
HR 45 T 1/16" steel ball 3 42 45 100
HR 15 W 1/8" steel ball 3 12 15 100
HR 30 W 1/8" steel ball 3 27 30 100
HR 45 W 1/8" steel ball 3 42 45 100
HR 15 X 1/4" steel ball 3 12 15 100
HR 30 X 1/4" steel ball 3 27 30 100
HR 45 X 1/4" steel ball 3 42 45 100
HR 15 Y 1/2" steel ball 3 12 15 100
HR 30 Y 1/2" steel ball 3 27 30 100
HR 45 Y 1/2" steel ball 3 42 45 100
BRINELL HARDNESS TESTS

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting

the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or
carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer
materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to
avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally
applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel
and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The
diameter of the indentation left in the test material is
measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell
harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied
by the surface area of the indentation.
KNOOP AND VICKERS MICROINDENTATION
HARDNESS TESTS
Two other hardness-testing techniques are Knoop (pronounced) and
Vickers (sometimes also called diamond pyramid). For each test a very
small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface
of the specimen. Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and
Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g. The resulting impression is observed
under a microscope and measured; this measurement is then converted into
a hardness number. Careful specimen surface preparation (grinding and
polishing) may be necessary to ensure a well-defined indentation that may be
accurately measured. The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers are
designated by HK and HV,respectively,16 and hardness scales for both
techniques are approximately equivalent. Knoop and Vickers are referred to
as microindentation-testing methods on the basis of indenter size. Both are
well suited for measuring the hardness of small, selected specimen regions;
furthermore, Knoop is used for testing brittle materials such as ceramics.
HARDNESS CONVERSION

The facility to convert the hardness measured on one

scale to that of another is most desirable. However, since
hardness is not a well-defined material property, and because
of the experimental dissimilarities among the various
techniques, a comprehensive conversion scheme has not
been devised. Hardness conversion data have been
determined experimentally and found to be dependent on
material type and characteristics.
CORRELATION BETWEEN HARDNESS
AND TENSILE STRENGTH

Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a

metal’s resistance to plastic deformation .Consequently, they
are roughly proportional for tensile strength as a function of
the HB for cast iron, steel, and brass. The same
proportionality relationship does not hold for all metals.
COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE AND
STANDARD DEVIATION VALUES

An average value is obtained by dividing the sum of all measured values by

the number of measurements taken. In mathematical terms, the average of
some parameter x is

where n is the number of observations or measurements and is the value of a

discrete measurement. Furthermore, the standard deviation s is determined
using the following expression:
DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS
Design Stress, denoted as For static situations and when
ductile materials are used, is taken as the calculated stress
level (on the basis of the estimated maximum load) multiplied by a
design factor, N’

Where N’ is greater than unity. Thus, the material to be used for

the particular application is chosen so as to have a yield strength
at least as high as this value of

Alternatively, a Safe Stress or Working Stress, is used

instead of design stress. This safe stress is based on the yield
strength of the material and is defined as the yield strength
divided by a factor of safety, N, or
EXAMPLE:

A tensile-testing apparatus is to be constructed that must

withstand a maximum load of 220,000 N (50,000 lbf). The design calls
for two cylindrical support posts, each of which is to support half of the
maximum load. Furthermore, plain-carbon (1045) steel ground and
polished shafting rounds are to be used; the minimum yield and
tensile strengths of this alloy are 310 MPa (45,000 psi) and 565 MPa
(82,000 psi), respectively. Specify a suitable diameter for these
support posts.
Solution

The first step in this design process is to decide on a factor of safety,

N, which then allows determination of a working stress. In addition, to
ensure that the apparatus will be safe to operate, we also want to
minimize any elastic deflection of the rods during testing; therefore, a
relatively conservative factor of safety is to be used, say N = 5. Thus, the
working stress is just
From the definition of stress

where d is the rod diameter and F is the applied force; furthermore,

each of the two rods must support half of the total force or 110,000 N
(25,000 psi). Solving for d leads to

Therefore, the diameter of each of the two rods should be 47.5 mm or

1.87 in.