SPATIAL ANALYSIS

GIS Operations
 Contents

– desktop mapping vs spatial analysis

– integrated analysis of spatial and attribute
data … the power of GIS
– no universally agreed classification …
conceptual [Aronoff, S. (1989) GIS: a
management perspective]

2
 Some GIS analysis functions
Retrieval,
classification
measurement

INTEGRATED ANALYSIS Overlay

operations
OF SPATIAL & ATTRIBUTE
DATA
Neighbourhood
operations

Connectivity
functions
Aronoff (1989)

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 Attribute data analysis(ARC/INFO)

– FREQuency command
• at ARC prompt
• any attribute type
– STATISTICS command
• in TABLES
• numeric data only
• SUM, MIN, MAX, STD DEV

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 Attribute query functions

– retrieval of records according to conditions e.g.

display species and area of forests 30 years or
older
Poly ID Area Stand No Stand No Maj. Species Age
237 50 6 6 Cedar 50
238 10 50 50 Cedar 10
239 20 10 10 Rainforest 30

Results ... Rainforest 20 ha

Cedar 50 ha

Results of attribute only output; however output can be

graphical as well …
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 Attribute query …Boolean search and display

– GOOD IF soil family is r AND

– drainage is d AND
– if polygon area > 12 ha.

Query
Soils
result
data

Caution: limits of Boolean logic based

queries 6
 Reclassification / generalisation “query”
Soil family type generalised from a soils database

Soils
data
Soil
family
types

An overlay operation if multiple layers are used

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 Measurement
Distance between points, length of lines, perimeters, areas, volumes ...

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 Overlay operations … a summary

– common operational basics

– by data model (raster/vector)
– complexity (2 layers, many layers)
– popular terminology (polygon on polygon, line
on polygon and point in polygon; buffers)
– computational classification (UNION,
INTERSECT, IDENTITY)

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 Overlay operational basics

– arithmetic operations: +-*/ of values in a layer

by value in corresponding location in another
layer (caution: measurement metrics !)
– logical (Boolean searches): find the areas
where a specified set of conditions do or do not
occur absolute !
– ‘Fuzzy’ approaches

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 Inconsistent terminology
Not all operations termed overlays

Polygons Lines Points

Polygons x x x
Lines ?
Points ?

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 Polygon on polygon … simple example

“New”
information
is generated

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 Simple polygon
overlay

Overlay is a special case of a

much larger set of operations
… search
… inclusion/exclusion
… attach. attributes etc.

Graphic data combined;

New attribute table
 Polygon overlays - multiple
Case study (Glasgow): identifying areas of deprivation/ lack of services
 Polygon layers
multiple

Raw/original data

Derived data

Overlay process: a search

for spatial patterns:
- multi criteria
- boolean vs fuzzy logic

Output is a product of the

model used !!!
Cartographic vs statistical models
 Polygon layers
multiple, RASTER,
weighted

Suitability
modelling
Least Most
suitable suitable
0 15
Weighted model using Boolean logic
overlays (Jensen 1986)
 Weighted
polygon overlays

In contrast to the Raster

model there is a need to
manipulate the attribute
table to achieve weighting
 Weighted
polygon overlays

Weighted VECTOR
polygon overlays

Legend
 Overlays -
point in polygon

. Search function
. Count
. Attach attributes
 Overlays -
line in polygon

Can be treated as a specialised

Search function where the
polygon is a neighbourhood

Can be used to attach

attributes of the polygon
to the arcs
 Overplots vs topological overlays
Topological overlay vs graphic overplot
Desktop
mapping
software

“True” GIS
software

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 Types of topological overlays in ARC/INFO
Three topological overlay operations

Output
coverages
Input
coverages

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 Overlays …
UNION in ARC/INFO

Polygon coverages
only

“Sieve mapping”
 Overlays … INTERSECT in ARC/INFO

Polygons Lines Points

(polygon only)

(same type
as in-cover)
 Overlays …IDENTITY in ARC/INFO
Polygons Lines Points

(defines the type and

extent of outcover)

(polygon only)

(feature type
as in in-cover) 25
Buffers … variable

SE England Rail network:

1km, 2km, 5km buffers
around railway stations
Buffers … variable
Buffers … attribute analysis
 Buffer ...
airport noise

Noise cones
around
an airport
Buffers in ARC/INFO

In-cover can be
point, line, polygon

Out-cover polygon

Inside as an item
Variable buffers in ARC/INFO
 Neighbourhood functions
Search

Line-in-polygon
Point-in-polygon

Topographic
Neighbourhood functions
operations
Thiessen polygons

Interpolation

Contour generation
 Neighbourhood functions …search

– SEARCH requires 3 basic parameters:

• the targets
• the neighbourhood (definition ?)
• the functions (AVERAGE, DIVERSITY, MAJORITY,
MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, TOTAL)
– can be implemented as a buffer function

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Neighbourhood functions… topographic functions

– topography … the surface characteristics …

relief … DEM (slope, aspect)
– most topographic functions are neighbour-
hood (local area) based
– slope for other than elevation: land costs,
analysis of gravity and aeromagnetic data,
3D analysis generally.

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3D representation

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 Neighbourhood functions
Thiessen (vornoi) polygons

Define areas of influence

around each of a set of points

Boundaries are equidistant

from the neighbouring points
… can be weighted

Point to polygon
conversion

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 Neighbourhood
functions ...Interpolation

Procedure of predicting unknown

values using the known values at
neighbouring locations.
Contour lines … connect points of
the same value: crime rates, housing
values, wildlife population etc …

Interpolation is fundamental to
contour generation.

Need to exercise caution as the

same data can produce
different“correct” results.

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 Connectivity functions
Functions that accumulate values
over the area being traversed.
Routing and allocation are
fundamental to many GISs in
urban areas.

Generally vector based

Impedence/ friction of space

- interconnection specification
- movement rules
- measurement units
Connectivity functions … Travel zones …
absolute and partial barriers
 Connectivity functions … intervisibility functions

Also viewshed modelling/

viewshed mapping.

Invaluable tool for planning

Uses DEM

VIEW
Spatial analysis … a problem

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Spatial analysis … a process