FLOUR QUALITY

Introduction: What is Flour?

 Flours by definition are grains milled to a
relatively fine granulation size.
 Not all flours have the same granulation,
however.
 For example, soft wheat flours are typically
ground finer than hard wheat flours because
the softness of their kernels allows it.
Cont’d

 Wheat flour is the product resulting exclusively

from the grinding of wheat grains.

 It is a sound, reliable, and commercial product,

cleaned of impurities prior to grinding.

 Produced in line with local and national

regulations in the country where it is used.
Cont’d

 It must be free of all additives, most notably

from:
 legumes;
 oxidoreducing agents such as ascorbic acid;
 enzymes such as proteases, amylases, and
pentosanases;
 emulsifiers;
Cont’d

 Coloring agents;
 antibiotics;
 preserving agents; and so on.

 It must also be free from all treatments, such

as heat treatment, chlorination, and so on
Make up of Flour

 White flour—the ground endosperm—contains

mostly starch.

 Yet other components are naturally present and

affect its properties.

 Of all the components of white flour, the two key

components are starch and protein.
Make up … (cont’d)
Make up … (cont’d)

 Starch makes up the bulk of flour (68–76 %)

 Even bread flour, considered low in starch,
contains more starch than all other components
combined.
 Starch is present in flour as small grains or
granules.
 Some starch granules are damaged during the
milling process or when flour is stored under
damp conditions
Make up … (cont’d)

 Chunks of protein (6–18 percent) act as the

cement that holds starch granules in place in the
endosperm.
 Together, glutenin and gliadin, the gluten-forming
proteins, make up about 80 % of the proteins in
the endosperm.
 Other proteins in white flour include enzymes,
such as amylase, protease, and lipase
Make up … (cont’d)

 Moisture in flour typically ranges from 11–14

percent.
 When moisture content rises above 14 percent,
flour is susceptible to fungus and mold growth,
flavor changes, enzyme activity, and insect
infestation.
 For these reasons, flour must be stored properly,
covered and in a cool, dry place.
Make up … (cont’d)

 Other carbohydrates in flour besides starch

include gums (2–3 percent), primarily pentosans
 It is easy to overlook the importance of pentosan
gums in white flour because they are present at
relatively low levels.
 But they have at least one important function in
flour.
Make up … (cont’d)

 Because they typically absorb about 10 times

their weight in water, a small amount of
pentosan gums makes a large contribution to
the water absorption value of flour

 Pentosans also increase the viscosity or

consistency of batters and doughs
Make up … (cont’d)

 The small amounts present in wheat fl our

appear to interact with gluten, generally
improving its strength and structure.
 Larger amounts of pentosans have the opposite
effect and result in lower volume in baked
goods.
 Pentosan gums are a source of soluble dietary
fiber.
Make up … (cont’d)

 Although only a small amount of lipids (1–1.5

percent)—oil and emulsifiers—are present in
white flour, they are necessary for proper
gluten development.

 Yet, because of its nature, wheat oil oxidizes

easily and turns rancid, limiting the shelf life
of flour.
Make up … (cont’d)

 While not dangerous or unsafe, stale flour

has a distinct cardboard flavor that is best
avoided by storing flour properly and using it
promptly (on time)
Make up … (cont’d)

 Ash is composed of inorganic matter—mineral

salts—naturally present in wheat kernels.
 It includes iron, copper, potassium, sodium, and
zinc.
 Besides providing needed minerals to the diet,
ash increases yeast fermentation by contributing
minerals to yeast.
 Ash has a gray color that carries over to the flour.
Make up … (cont’d)

 If properly milled, however, white flour is

relatively low in ash (less than 0.6 percent),
because ash is concentrated in the bran layer,
which is separated from the endosperm when
white flour is milled.
 Ash is measured in flour and grain samples by
burning the samples at very high
temperatures—over 550 0C)—and weighing
the remains.
Make up … (cont’d)

 Carotenoid pigments are present in white flour

in extremely low amounts (1–4 ppm).
 They provide the creamy, off-white color to
unbleached flour.
 The carotenoid pigments in white flour are in
the same family as beta-carotene, the orange
pigment in carrots.
 Flour Quality Testing

 Quality is a relative term

 Wheat & flour are defined in terms of

their suitability for the production of the
end use
 Following are criterea for evaluating
flour quality
1. Ash content

 Refers to the mineral substances that remain

after burning all the organic matter upon
incineration
Ash… (cont’d)

 Ash content is the first legally accepted

quality parameter used in grading
commercial flours for trade

 Concern of the miller is not the ash content

but the brightness or whiteness of the flour
Factors that Influence Ash Content

– Type of wheat
– Cleaning process
– Conditioning of wheat
– Roll profile
– Stock grading
– Purification
2. Color Grade Value

 Ash test is time and labor consuming

 Not suitable for quick quality control
 Colorimeter- a better method was devised
– Allows a direct measurement of flour
colour brightness
Color… (Cont’d)

 The measurement reflects the degree of flour

contamination with bran upon milling

 Not influenced by the natural colour of the

flour due to xantophills and other pigments

 Has nothing to do with extraction rate

Factors Influencing Color Grade Value

– Wheat type
– Cleaning and conditioning
– Correct setting of break rolls
– Poor purification
– Poor grinding on head reduction rolls
– Condition of sieve clothings on the
various dressing machines
3. Protein Content & Protein Quality

 Protein content is determined indirectly by

measuring the total nitrogen content and
then multiplying it with an appropriate factor,
6.25
% Protein = % Nitrogen x 6.25

 Normal protein content of flour 8-16%

Protein…(Cont’d)

Type of Wheat Protein Content (%)

Hard 13- 16

Medium hard 10-13

Soft 8 - 10
Protein…(Cont’d)
 Gluten
– Formed when the dough is mixed with water
– Constitutes about 80% of the total proteins
– The gluten forming proteins are present only
in the floury white endosperm
– Its content is determined by hand or machine
washing of a sample of flour and drying it
Simple Proteins

– Albumins
– Globulins
– Prolamins
– Glutelins
– Scleroproteins
Protein…(Cont’d)
 Bread flour is required to be of relatively higher
gluten content than flour to be used for biscuits
or cakes

 Millers meet the protein content specifications

of their flours by blending wheats of different
protein contents or their resulting flours
Protein…(Cont’d)
 Physical properties of gluten is also an
important criteria of flour quality

 Flours having the same gluten content may

have different quality and

 Consequently produce loaves of different

volume for the same mass of dough
Protein…(Cont’d)
 Gluten quality is largely a hereditary
characteristic

 The miller has nothing to do with it

 So protein content is generally used as

criteria of flour quality
4. Starch Damage

 During milling process, a portion of the

starch granules suffer some degree of
starch damage

 The physically damaged starch granules

represent the starch damage content of
the flour
Starch… (Cont’d)

 Having some percentage of damaged

starch in wheat flour is desirable

– Increases the water absorption of the flour

– Serves as a precursor for diastatic enzymes to act

upon it for producing fermentable sugars (maltose &
dextrin)
Starch… (Cont’d)
 Damaged starch takes 2.5 times more water
than native starch
 The mass of dough produced from flour with
lower starch damage will be higher than from
the same flour with lower starch damage

 The larger the mass of dough, the more the

number of loaves produced from it
Starch… (Cont’d)
NB:
i. Excess starch damage content is
undesirable
– In such cases, the action of amylases on the
damaged starch produces substances known
as dextrins
– Dextrins are of sticky characteristic and if
excess render the crumb of the bread sticky
 difficult to slice
Starch… (Cont’d)
 The SDC must be kept at optimum value (< 9%)
ii. Along with starch granules, protein
molecules also get damaged to some
extent
 This lowers the quality of flour

 The higher the damaged starch content, the

more the protein quality deteriorates
Points to be considered by millers
to control Starch Damage in flour:

– Maintaining a differential of 1:2.5 to

1:3
– Proper mellowing of endosperm
– Thinner feeding rolls
– Good matt finish of roll surface
5. Enzyme Activity

 Refers to the activity of diastatic enzymes

- alpha amylase & beta amylase

 Responsible for the breaking down of

starch into maltose

 Starch Maltose Glucose

Enzyme … (Cont’d)

 Industrially, the maltose produced

(maltose figure) is very important as it
gives an indication of gas producing
power of the corresponding dough
Enzyme … (Cont’d)

 In viable wheats, amylases exists in

insufficient quantities
 Thus, modern commercial mills that supply
flour for bread production, supplement their
flour with these enzymes either:
– In the form of malt flour (flour with active
amylase activity) or
– Pure enzyme of fungal or bacterial origin
Enzyme … (Cont’d)
 Amylase breaks down starch in bread dough
into sugar and other products.

 This provides food for yeast fermentation,

increases browning, and slows staling.

 During fermentation, amylase acts on

available starch, primarily starch from
damaged granules.
Enzyme … (Cont’d)

 During baking, amylase activity increases

when starch granules gelatinize and become
more susceptible to its action.

 Enzyme activity stops when amylase is

inactivated by the heat.
Enzyme … (Cont’d)

 The Falling Number test is used to measure

the alpha amylase activity

– Helps to decide on the quantity of enzyme

to be supplemented
6. Fat Content

 The germ portion of the wheat kernel is oily

– Mainly responsible for the fat content of
flour
 Biscuit manufacturers guarantee a shelf
life of about six months
 Flour to be used for biscuit production has
to be of low fat content as much as
possible
Fat … (Cont’d)

 The nature of wheat germ fat is

predominantly unsaturated

 Keeps for short period without being

rancid
7. Flour Granulation

 Flour granulation test indicates:

– severity of grinding
– friability of wheat
 Influences the water absorption of flour

 Fine particles bring rapid hydration and

dough formation
Flour… (Cont’d)

 This in turn results in quick gluten

development

 Finer flour appears brighter since the

intensity of light reflectance is
increased
 This may influence flour color test
8. Moisture Content

 Knowledge of the moisture content of

flour is important from two points of
views:

– Its influence on the storage potential

of the flour
– Its economic value
Moisture… (Cont’d)

 From storage of wheat, it is easy to see how

moisture affects the storability of flour

 Moisture in flour typically ranges from 11–14 %.

Moisture… (Cont’d)

 When moisture content rises above 14

%, flour is susceptible to:
– fungus and mold growth
– flavor changes
– enzyme activity
– insect infestation
Moisture… (Cont’d)

 14% is said to be safe for storing flour at

about 65% relative humidity

 Flour moisture has an economic value for the

miller
 The higher the moisture content of his flour,
the more money it fetches to him and vice
versa
Moisture… (Cont’d)

Example
 If the moisture content of the flour is less
by 1% than what it should be and the mill
capacity is 1000 quintals of flour per day,
 The miller will lose 10 quintals per day

Q. Calculate the financial loss if the prevailing

market is $ 5.0 per kg of wheat.
Moisture… (Cont’d)

 Maintaining the optimum moisture content is

very important as far as the gain on selling
water is concerned

 A standard should be set for the moisture

content of flour by the concerned authorities
of a nation
9. Maturation & Bleaching

 Flour stored for about 4-6 months is said to

be matured or aged

 Developed better functional property for

bread making than a freshly milled one

 Flour maturation can be performed either by

natural means or by using chemicals
Natural aging

 The oxygen of the air modifies the

protein of the flour by breaking S-H
bonds and forming S-S bonds
 S-S bond is a desirable property for
bread making
 Stronger bond and greater gas holding
capacity
Natural…

R-S-H + H-S-R Oxidizing agent R-S-S-R

Disulphide bond
Natural…

 The air causes two main changes:

– whitens the flour
– strengthens the gluten
 Oxygen oxidizes the carotenoid pigments in
flour, i.e. whitens the yellow color

 Oxygen also oxidizes gluten-forming proteins,

allowing them to form stronger gluten
Natural…

 Natural aging has a few disadvantages:

1. Requires longer time, often several months
– During this time, the flour takes up valuable
silo space and is not paying the bills.
2. The longer flour stays in silos, the more
likely it will support mold growth or become
infested with insects or rodents
Natural…

 Moreover, natural aging can be

inconsistent, and it is not as effective as
many chemical bleaching and maturing
agents.
Artificial aging

 Performed by addition of chemicals called

maturing agents
– additives that change the baking properties
of flours
E.g. Water absorption
Gas holding capacity
 They are added to flour by the miller or are
found in many dough conditioners that are
added by the baker
Artificial…

 Potassium bromate and ascorbic acid are

commonly used

 Effect maturation in a short time compared to

natural aging
Bleaching

 Bleaching agents are chemicals that oxidize

flour pigments (e.g. carotenoids) into colorless
substances and vitamins.
 Two common flour bleaching agents are
benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas
 Improve the nutritional quality of the final
product
Bleaching (Cont’d)

 Benzoyl peroxide is used in all types of flour

because it is extremely effective at whitening

 Chlorine is used in cake flour only.

 Besides whitening, chlorine improves the

baking properties of soft wheat flour by
substantially weakening gluten and by allowing
starch to absorb water more quickly and easily.