GASTROINTESTINAL

SYSTEM
EMERITA C. MENDOZA,
R.N., M.D.
 DIGESTIVE TRACT

• aka alimentary tract/ canal

• 7.6m (25ft) long from mouth to anus
• “Gastrointestinal tract”
• Mouth pharynx esophagus stomach
 sm.intestine (duodenum, jejunum,
ileum) l. intestine (cecum, colon,
rectum)
Processes that FOOD undergo
A. INGESTION
- Food taken in, chewed, swallowed
B. DIGESTION
1. Physical/Mechanical
2. Chemical – enzymes
- ABSORPTION
- TRANSPORT via blood circulation
1. liver2. body cells
- ELIMINATION via defecation
 Layers of Digestive Tract
Basic Plan: (from lumen  outwards)
 MUCOSA (aka mucous membrane)
- epithelial tissue resting on layer of
loose CT (lamina propria)
- STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS epithelial
found in the esophagus & anal canal
- COLUMNAR epithelial found in other
structures of GI tract
 SUBMUCOSA –area rich in blood vessels
& nerves
 MUSCULARIS EXTERNA
inner circular muscle
longitudinal muscle
5. SEROSA (aka ADVENTITIA)
a. visceral peritoneum – below level of
diaphragm
b. parietal peritoneum – lines walls of the
abdominal & pelvic cavities
*peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum
 PERITONEAL FOLDS
• MESENTERY
– Fused double layer of peritoneal tissue that
suspends s.intestines to dorsal aspect of
peritoneal cavity
• GREATER OMENTUM aka fatty apron
– Large (14”x10”) double fold of peritoneum
attached to duodenum, stomach, & large
intestines
– Apron-like structure that hangs over intestines
– Highly vascular with large fat deposits; lymph
nodes also present
• LESSER OMENTUM
– Suspends the stomach
& duodenum from the
liver

• MESOCOLON
– Fold of peritoneum
that attaches the colon
to the posterior
abdominal wall
 INSIDE THE MOUTH

• aka oral cavity

• Hard palate
serves as the roof
 TONGUE
• With tiny
projections called
papillae
• Also with
taste buds
 TEETH
• Noted in sockets
(alveoli) on the
mandible & maxilla
• GINGIVAE = gums
– Cover the alveolar
sockets of the
mandible & maxilla
 Structure of a Tooth
• ENAMEL – hardest
substance in body
– For protection
• DENTIN – calcified
connective tissue for
rigidity & shape
• CEMENTUM – root
region
• PULP – extremely
sensitive connective
tissue w/ blood vessels &
nerves
• ROOT CANALS –
 SALIVARY GLANDS
• produce 1-2L of
saliva/day
• 3 main pairs:
 Parotid
 Submandibular
 Sublingual
• Saliva component
g) Serous secretion
-Ptyalin & lysozyme
h) Mucous secretion
• Mucin
FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA
 Lubricates tissues of mouth & pharynx
 Helps dissolve food particles
 By moistening food  produce BOLUS which
activates swallowing (deglutition) reflex
 The PHARYNX (Throat)
• muscular tube 12cm
(4.8in) long
• Foyer of the
respiratory tract & GI
tract.
• 3 Regions:
4. Oropharynx
5. Nasopharynx
6. Laryngopharynx
 Structures associated with the
Pharynx
• FAUCES – opening leading from mouth to
nasopharynx
• UVULA – small conical process at the
middle of the lower border of soft palate
• EPIGLOTTIS – tissue flap that closes the
laryngeal opening on swallowing
• SOFT PALATE – pulled upward to close
nasopharynx during swallowing
 The ESOPHAGUS
• From the pharynx
through thoracic
cavity then through
diaphragm &
empties into the
stomach
• w/ peristaltic
contraction
• (+) cardiac or lower
esophageal
sphincter
 The STOMACH
• Large, muscular hotdog-shaped or bean-
shaped organ
• Mucosal folds called “RUGAE” line it that
has capacity to stretch to inc capacity (>1
liter)
• Muscular contractions mash & churn food
& move it along via peristalsis
• Stomach lining: simple columnar
epithelium that secrete mucus
• Millions of gastric glands that secrete:
– HCl – secreted by parietal cells; kills bacteria
& breaks down CT in meat
– Pepsin – secreted by chief cells as
pepsinogen; breaks down food proteins into
smaller peptides  stimulate sensory
receptors to increase stomach motility &
secretion
• CHYME – soupy solution of food + gastric
juice
The SMALL INTESTINE
• Long, coiled tube
5m (16ft) long x 4
cm (1.5”) diameter
• Sections:
– Duodenum
– Jejunum
– ileum
• Characteristics:
– Circular folds of
mucous membrane
– Intestinal villi – tiny
fingerlike projection of
the mucous
membrane
– Microvilli – folds of
cytoplasm on the
exposed borders of
the epithelial cells
– Intestinal glands – bet.
villi that secrete
medium for digestion
& absorption of
• Bile from the liver &
enzymes from the
pancreas  released
into the duodenum &
act on the chyme +
enzymes from
epithelial cells of
duodenum 
breakdown of food
particles for
absorption
 The PANCREAS
• Large, elongated
gland that lies in the
abdomen inferior to
the stomach
• Pancreatic head is
located at C-
shaped curve of
duodenum
• Function:
– 99% exocrine gland: secretes pancreatic juice
with digestive enzyme
– 1% endocrine gland: done by Islets of
Langerhans
A cells – secrete the glucagon
B cells – secrete the insulin
D cells – secrete the somatostatin
 Pancreatic Hormones

• INSULIN – hypoglycemic hormone

– Function: facilitates transport of glucose across cell
membranes for utilization
• GLUCAGON – hyperglycemic hormone
– Function: mobilize glucose from its major storage
source, liver glycogen
• SOMATOSTATIN – local tissue hormone
– Function: inhibits secretion of both insulin & glucagon
 The LIVER
• Located just inferior
to the diaphragm
• R lobe > L lobe
• Lobe is divided into
thousands of
microscopic lobules
which consists of
liver cells
 Functions of the liver:
 Secretes bile for fat digestion
 Converts glucose to glycogen & stores it
 Stores iron & vitamins
 Converts excess amino acids to fatty acids &
urea
 Metabolism of proteins, fats, & carbohydrates
 Manufactures plasma proteins found in the
blood
 Detoxifies many drugs & poisons that enter the
body
 Phagocytizes bacteria & worn-out RBC.
Release bilirubin via bile
 The GALLBLADDER
• Pear-shaped storage
of bile
• CCK
(Cholecystokinin)
stimulates GB to
contract, releasing
bile into the cystic
duct
• *Common Bile Duct:
– Cystic duct + bile duct
+ pancreatic duct 
opens into the
duodenum
 The LARGE INTESTINE
-long, tube-like organ that is
connected to the small
intestine at one end to the
anus .
-four parts: cecum, colon,
rectum, and anal canal.
-food moves through the cecum
into the colon, where water
and some nutrients and
electrolytes are removed.
-solid waste called stool, moves
through the colon, is stored in
the rectum, and leaves the
body through the anal canal
and anus
• Approximately 1.5m (5”) long
• Diameter > small intestine
• CECUM: pouch where SI joins LI
• VERMIFORM APPENDIX
• COLON: cecum to rectum
– Ascending colon
– Transverse colon
– Descending colon
– Sigmoid colon
• RECTUM – last 12cm
• ANUS – (anal canal)
• Characteristics:
– (-) villi
– (-) digestive enzymes
– Surface epithelium
consists of cells
specialized for
absorption & goblet
cells that secrete
mucus
– Taenia epiploicae –
circular muscle
– Haustrae
– Ileocecal sphincter
 Functions of the large intestines

1. Absorption of Na & water

2. Incubation of bacteria
3. Elimination of wastes:
– Undigested and unabsorbed food
– Sloughed-off cells from intestinal epithelium
– Bile pigments
 RECTUM
• After meals, the
motility of large
intestine increases +
distention of the
stomach with food
initiates contractions
of the rectum,
stimulating the desire
to defecate
 ANUS
• 2 anal sphincters:
1. Internal – smooth muscle
2. External – voluntary muscle
 CHEMICAL DIGESTION
• Digestive enzymes speed up chemical
reactions and help in the breakdown
(digestion) of complex nutrients
• complex carbohydrates  simple sugars
(i.e. glucose)
• complex proteins  simpler amino acids
• complex lipids  fatty acids + glycerol
Digestion of Carbohydrates
• mouth: salivary amylase
– starch & glycogen  maltose + small
polysaccharides
• stomach: salivary amylase is inactivated
by acidic pH
• duodenum: pancreatic amylase
– polysaccharides  maltose
– maltose maltase  glucose + glucose
– sucrose sucrase  glucose + fructose
– lactose lactase  glucose + galactose
 Digestion of Proteins
• goal: to break the peptide bonds & release
free amino acids
• stomach: pepsin
– proteins  polypeptides
• pancreas: trypsin, chymotrypsin
– polypeptides  tri- & dipeptides
• stomach: peptidase
– tripeptides + dipeptides  free amino acids
 Digestion of Lipids
• duodenum: pancreatic bile
– fat  emulsified fat
– fat (triacylglcerol) pancreatic lipase  fatty acids +
glycerol

• a.a. & simple sugars are absorbed through

intestinal villi
• fatty acids are absorbed through the
lymph system before entering the blood